A  TREATISE 

ON 

PRODUCER- GAS  AND 
GAS-PRODUCERS 


BY 
SAMUEL    S.  WYER,   M.E. 

JUNIOR  MEMBER  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS 
MEMBER  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  MINING  ENGINEERS 

AUTHOR  "  CATECHISM  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  " 


SECOND  EDITION 
Second  Impression 


McGRAW-HILL    BOOK   COMPANY 

239  WEST  39TH  STREET,  NEW  YORK 

6  BOUVERIE  STREET,  LONDON,  E.  G. 

1906 


UN*  «" 


Copyright,  1906,  By  THE  ENGINEERING  AND  MINING  JOURNAL 
Copyright,  1907,  By  THE  HILL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


DEDICATED  TO  MY  WIFE. 


337627 


PREFACE. 

THE  first  four  chapters  are  given  for  the  benefit  of  readers 
who  may  not  be  familiar  with  those  fundamental  laws  and  defi- 
nitions of  physics  and  applied  chemistry  upon  which  a  rational 
discussion  of  producer-gas  must  be  based.  References  are  cited 
in  the  text  by  means  of  their  bibliographical  serial  numbers, 
these  being  given  in  Chapter  30.  Since  the  engineering  side  of 
gas-producers  is  so  closely  related  to  applied  chemistry,  tem- 
peratures are  stated  either  in  Centigrade  or  Fahrenheit;  how- 
ever, as  the  book  is  intended  primarily  for  engineers,  the 
Fahrenheit  scale  is  used  most. 

Parts  of  Chapters  24,  26,  and  30  were  presented  by  the  author 
as  papers  at  the  Washington,  D.  C.,  meeting  of  the  A.  I.  M.  E. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  courtesy  shown  him 
by  the  builders  of  American  producers  in  furnishing  illustrations 
and  data,  and  especially  to  the  United  Coke  and  Gas  Company 
for  information  on  their  by-product  coke  ovens. 

Acknowledgment   is   also    due   Messrs.    Ledebur,  Ramdohr, 

o 

Stegmann,  and  Gradenwitz,  of  Germany;  Ackerman,  of  Sweden; 
Ebelmen,  of  France;  Mathot,  of  Belgium;  Rowan,  Jenkins,  Dow- 
son,  Siemens,  Sexton,  and  Mond,  of  England;  and  Taylor, 
Campbell,  Howe,  Gow,  Raymond,  and  Nixon,  of  America,  for 
ideas  and  suggestions  from  their  contributions  to  the  literature 
of  the  subject. 

In  conclusion  I  wish  to  thank  Prof.  N.  W.  Lord,  of  the  Ohio 
State  University,  for  suggestions  and  criticisms  on  the  book. 

SAMUEL  S.  WYER. 

COLUMBUS,  OHIO,  September,  1905. 

5 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  TO   SECOND   EDITION 

IT  is  now  nearly  a  year  and  a  half  since  the  manuscript  for 
the  first  edition  left  the  author's  hands.  In  this  brief  period  the 
producer-gas  industry  has  grown  very  rapidly  in  America.  Not 
only  have  a  large  number  of  manufacturers  gone  into  the  business 
of  manufacturing  gas  producers,  but  the  advantages  of  the  pro- 
ducer-gas process  have  become  so  well  known  as  to  make  it  feasible 
to  adapt  producer  gas  to  several  new  industries.  The  largest 
amount  of  development  in  the  near  future  will  be  along  the  line 
of  developing  successful  soft  coal  gas  producers  for  gas-engine 
work. 

The  changes  that  have  been  necessary  to  bring  the  second 
edition  up  to  date  have  been  made  by  mean's  of  references  follow- 
ing the  section  numbers  and  headings  which  refer  to  notes  in  the 
Appendix.  As  for  example,  §  47  Atomic  and  Molecular  Weights 
(see  App.,  Note  7).  In  the  same  way,  if  the  section  number  is 
followed  by  (B  99)  the  reference  is  to  the  bibliography  pages 
277-290  inclusive. 

Dr.  Richards'  "Metallurgical  Calculations"  have  done  much 
toward  placing  the  thermo-chemical  problems  of  gas  engineering 
on  a  firm  basis,  and  the  author  is  under  obligations  to  him  for 
suggestions. 

In  conclusion  the  author  wishes  to  thank  all  those  who  have 
been  helpful  in  increasing  the  value  of  the  book  by  suggesting 
changes  and  making  criticisms. 

SAMUEL  S.  WYER. 

HARRISON  BUILDING,  COLUMBUS,  OHIO, 
March  15,  1907. 


CONTENTS, 


CHAPTER  I. 

FUNDAMENTAL    PHYSICAL    LAWS    AND    DEFINITIONS 

SECTION.  pAGE 

1.  Importance  of  laws 21 

2.  Forms  of  matter    ...            .......  21 

3.  Perfect   gas 21 

4.  Distinction  between  a  vapor  and  a  gas  .  21 

5.  Vapor  tension 22 

6.  Vapor  pressure 22 

7.  Saturation .      .      .  22 

8.  Humidity 23 

9.  Absolute  humidity      ........  23 

10.  Relative  humidity      '.........,  23 

11.  Boyle's  or  Mariotte's  law       ......  23 

12.  Law  of  Charles 23 

13.  Laws  of  Boyle  and  Charles  combined    ......  23 

•  14.    Joule's  law  of  gases 24 

15.  Law  of  Gay-Lussac     .      .      .      J      ,      .      .  24 

16.  Dalton's  law     ./.''•.'..,'.,„'.'-...  24 

17.  Temperature .      .      .      .  24 

18.  Thermal  capacity        ....,,....,.  24 

19.  Specific  heat 24 

20.  Specific  heat  of  gases 24 

21.  Heat  unit    ..........      e—^      ....  .25 

22.  Density  of  gases     .<••.-../          .........     25 

23.  Specific  volume      ....            ,      .  25 

24.  Specific  gravity 25 

25.  Standard  conditions 25 

26.  Parallel  and  opposite  currents     ....,.-.-•'  26 

27.  Radiation „  27 

28.  Flow  of  gases    ..............      0  .     28 

29.  Equation  of  pipes 28 

CHAPTER  II. 

FUNDAMENTAL    CHEMICAL    LAWS   AND    DEFINITIONS. 

30.  Division  of  matter 30 

31.  Atoms  and  molecules 30 

32.  Chemical  affinity 30 

7 


•   •••**•     * 

:  V      .  v  :  :•:•..' 

,,      •      ••      *,•••••         «       •       *     *• 

•.:{••::    : .-;. 

£•    ••*  •    •'  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
SECTION.  .      ^ 

33.  Laws  of  thermal  chemistry    . 

34.  Endothermic  reaction 

35.  Exothermic  reaction  .    ,.      . 

36.  Law  of  definite  proportion     . 

37.  Law  of  multiple  proportion 

38.  Nascent  state  ...... 

39.  Oxidation 

40.  Reduction 

41.  Combustion      .... 

42.  Temperature  of  combustion 

43.  Dissociation 

44.  Dissociation  temperature • 

oo 

45.  Heat  of  decomposition     . 

46.  Flame 

47.  Atomic  and  molecular  weights    . 

48.  Destructive  distillation 

49.  Fractional  distillation 

50.  Direct-firing     .      .     . 

51.  Gas-firing    . 

CHAPTER  III. 

THERMAL   AND    PHYSICAL    CALCULATIONS. 

52.  Determination  of  the  specific  heat  of  a  mixed  gas 

53.  Determination  of  the  calorific  power  of  a  mixed  gas  35 

54.  Carbon  ratio     .      .      . 

55.  Calculation  of  volume  of  gas 

56.  Theoretical  combustion    . 

57.  Weight  of  a  mixed  gas 

58.  Specific  gravity  of  a  mixed  gas 

59.  Composition  of  gases  by  weight 

60.  Air  required  for  combustion       .  40 

61.  Weight  and  volume  of  products  of  combustion     .  41 

62.  Heat  carried  away  by  products  of  combustion      .  42 

63.  Sensible  heat  loss  of  producer-gas    .  42 

64.  Flame  temperature     . 

65.  Explosive  mixtures     ...  .43 

66.  Calculation  of  moisture  in  air     .     .     -. - .' 44 

CHAPTER  IV. 

COMMERCIAL   GASES. 

67.  Definition  of  commercial  gases          .      .     .     .     ...     .     .      .     45 

68.  Hydrogen          .      > 45 

69.  Marsh  gas          v.  .     v     .     .     v    .      .  46 

70.  Olefiant  gas .     *., .....  46 

71.  Carbonic  oxide                              ...........  46 


CONTENTS.  9 

SECTION.  PAGE. 

72.  Carbon  dioxide ........  46 

73.  Oxygen ....  47 

74.  Nitrogen 47 

75.  Hydrocarbons *  47 

76.  Water  vapor ^      .      .'     .  47 

77.  Air 48 

78.  Illuminants 48 

79.  Natural  gas 48 

80.  Oil  gas 48 

81.  Coal  gas 49 

82.  Coke-oven  gas 49 

83.  Water  gas 49 

84.  Carbureted  water  gas        .      .      .      .     „      .      .      .      .      .      .      o  49 

85.  Comparison  of  commercial  gases       .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .*  49 

86.  Tabulated  data ~  .>«....      .      .      .  50 

CHAPTER  V. 

STATUS    OF   PRODUCER-GAS. 

87.  Progress  made .      .      .     ^     .      ..     t.     t  52 

88.  Ignorance    .      .      .      .  '  .      .      .      .  -    .      .    "  .      .      .      o      .      .  52 

89.  Fuel  supply 53 

90.  Inadaptability 54 

CHAPTER  VI. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

91.  Method  of  operation 55 

92.  Method  of  supporting  fuel                        55 

93.  Place  of  removing  gas 56 

94.  Means  of  agitating  fuel 56 

95.  Nature  of  draft      .      .     ,.      .      .      .      .      ,      .    ^_  .     .      .     .      .56 

96.  Direction  of  blast        .      .     ^     .      .      ...      _     .      .  56 

97.  Continuity  of  operation    .      .      .      .     -.      .     ..-     .      .      .-   .      .      .  56 

CHAPTER  VII. 

MANUFACTURE    AND    USE    OF    PRODUCER-GAS. 

98.  Nature  of  producer-gas     .      .      ..*'.....      .     ',      .      .  57 

99.  Simple  producer-gas ..-.,.  57 

100.  Steam-enriched  gas 58 

101.  The  action  in  gas-producer    .......      .      ....  58 

102.  Ash  zone 58 

103.  Combustion  zone 60 

104.  Decomposition  zone    ........      ^ 60 

105.  Distillation  zone 60 

106.  Hydrocarbons 60 


10  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
SECTION. 

107.  Condition  of  fire    . 

108.  Temperature  of  gas     .  °* 

109.  Pre-heating  air       .      . 

110.  Uses  of  producer-gas 

111.  Advantages  of  gas-firing 

112.  Regenerators    .  •     ° 

113.  Recuperation    . 

114.  Comparison  of  regeneration  and  recuperation 

115.  Value  of  regeneration  and  recuperation      . 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

USE   OF   STEAM    IN   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

116.  Object  .     . 

117.  Action   . 

118.  Effect  of  temperature  on  action 

1 19.  Function  of  steam 

120.  Proportion  of  air  and  steam 

121.  Quantity  of  steam     .     .     . 

122.  Mechanical  effect  . 

123.  Water  vapor     . 

124.  Summary    .  •     71 

125.  Steam  blowers 

126.  Types  of  steam  blowers    .      .  .74 

CHAPTER  IX. 

CARBON    DIOXIDE    IN    PRODUCER-GAS. 

127.  Presence      .     .      . 

128.  Effect  of  temperature  and  fuel  bed 

129.  Effect  of  feeding 80 

130.  Effect  of  leakage    ...  81 

CHAPTER  X. 

EFFICIENCY    OF   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

131.  Heat  loss     . 

132.  Definition  of  efficiency 

133.  Two  kinds  of  efficiency 

134.  Relation  of  utility  and  efficiency 

135.  Relation  of  efficiency  and  calorific  power    . 

136.  Method  of  finding  efficiency        . ,    » 

137.  Conditions  governing  efficiency 

138.  Coal  and  ash  analysis       .... 

139.  Grate  efficiency      . ..."     •  85 

140.  Heat  of  combustion  of  fuel    .....  .85 

141.  Temperatures .      .     85 


CONTENTS.  11 

SECTION.  PAGE. 

142.  Figure  of  merit 85 

143.  Limited  use  of  figure  of  merit 86 

144.  Cold-gas  efficiency 87 

145.  Hot-gas  efficiency 87 

146.  Effect  of  steam  on  efficiency 88 

CHAPTER  XL 

HEAT  BALANCE  OF  THE  GAS-PRODUCER. 

147.  Heat  losses 89 

148.  Arrangement  of  heat  balance 90 

149.  Calculation  of  heat  balance 90 

CHAPTER  XII. 

FUEL. 

150.  Early  fuels 94 

151.  Character  of  fuel ...  94 

152.  Condition 94 

153.  Size  of  fuel 95 

154.  Coal 95 

155.  Peat 95 

156.  Brown  coal 96 

157.  Refuse 96 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

REQUIREMENTS. 

158.  Adaptability 97 

159.  Construction  of  producer                                    97 

160.  Composition  of  gas      ... 97 

161.  Automatic  feeding       .                              97 

162.  Continuity  of  operation                                  97 

163.  Agitation  of  fuel  bed           ~ 98 

164.  Removal  of  ashes      .                       98 

165.  Deep   fuel   bed      .      .                  98 

166.  Introduction  of  blast 98 

167.  Cleanliness 98 

168.  Ease  in  starting     .      .                  99 

169.  Regulation  of  steam  and  air .99 

170.  Heat  insulation 99 

171.  Grate  efficiency 99 

172.  Conservation  of  heat  energy 99 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

HISTORY    OF   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

173.  Chronological  record 100 

174.  Early  use 102 


12  CONTENTS. 

«cnm. 

175.  Conservatism  in  improvement    .     .      .     .    ^     •'     .     •     •     •  •   1 

176.  Want  of  appreciation       .      ...     .     .     •     •     •     •     •     •  •   * 

177.  Bischof  producer   .      .      .     .   ..     ..     •     •     ••     •     ••  •   ^ 

178.  Ebelmen  s  producers  .......••«•••  r  * 

179.  Ekman  producer   ..........-•••  -   l 

180.  Beaufume  producer    .     . .   1 

181.  Wedding  producer      . 1 

182.  Siemens  producer       .  ' »     •  "• 


CHAPTER  XV. 

AMERICAN    PRESSURE    PRODUCERS. 

183.  Taylor  fluxing  producer   . 

184.  Liangdon  producer 

185.  Fuel  gas  and  Electric  Engineering  Co.'s  producer    .  .116 

186.  Kitson  producer     .      . 

187.  American  Furnace  and  Machine  Co.'s  producer    . 

188.  Amsler  producer    . 

189.  Swindell  producer        .  .119 

190.  Forter  producer     .      . 

191.  Smythe  producer  .  125 

192.  Duff  producer        .... 125 

193.  Taylor  producer 126 

I'M.  Wood  double-bosh  producer .130 

195.  Wood  water-seal  producer   .  131 

196.  Wood  Hat-grate  producer       .  .132 

197.  Wood  single-bosh  water-seal  producer  .  .132 

198.  Wellman  producer      .      .  132 

199.  Fraser-Talbot  producer    .  ...    132 

200.  Morgan  producer   .....  .137 

201.  Loomis  producer 139 

202.  Wile  automatic  producer •   143 

203.  Wile  water-seal  producer 145 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

AMERICAN   SUCTION   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

204.  History  of  development 146 

205.  Definition  of  "suction  gas-producer" 146 

206.  Classification 146 

207.  Operation 147 

208.  Steam  supply  and  regulation      .  ........  147 

209.  American  suction  producers 147 

210.  Nagel  suction  producer    .............  148 

211.  Pintsch  suction  producer 150 

212.  American  Crossley  producer 152 


CONTENTS.  13 

SECTION.  pAGE. 

213.  Fairbanks-Morse  suction  producer 159 

214.  Smith  suction  producer , 161 

215.  Baltimore  suction  producer 164 

216.  Wyer  suction  producer 165 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

GAS-CLEANING. 

217.  Object  of  cleaning 169 

218.  Classification  of  methods 169 

219.  Deflectors    .      .      .      .  - 170 

220.  Liquid  scrubbers , 172 

221.  Coolers 172 

222.  Absorbers  or  filters 172 

223.  Rotating  scrubbers 174 

224.  Proportion  of  tower  scrubbers 176 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

BY-PRODUCT    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

225.  Definition 177 

226.  Number  and  value  of  by-products 177 

227.  Ammonia  sulphate 179 

228.  Method  of  recovering  by-products 180 

229.  Mond  process 180 

230.  Distinctive  features  of  Mond  process 183 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

BY-PRODUCT    COKE    OVEN    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

231.  Status  and  future        .     .      . 185 

232.  Otto-Hoffman  oven 185 

233.  Treatment  of  gas 188 

234.  United-Otto  oven        ....'.' 188 

235.  Wall  construction 190 

236.  Heating  systems 190 

237.  Operation 190 

238.  Quencher .      .  191 

239.  Air  and  water  coolers 193 

240.  Exhausters 193 

241.  Tar  scrubbers         ,      ...  193 

242.  Ammonia  scrubbers 195 

243.  Recovery  of  ammonia , 195 

244.  Benzol  recovery , 195 

245.  Use  of  gas  in  engines 196 


14  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

PRODUCER-GAS    FOR    FIRING    CERAMIC   KILNS. 

PAGE. 
SECTION. 


246.  Status    .      .      - 

247.  Value     .      ,      . 

248.  Objections        .      .     . 

249.  Difficulties  in  using  producer-gas    . 

250.  Heat  losses  l™ 

251.  Effect  of  solid  fuel  constituents        .  zuu 

252.  Advantages  of  producer-gas  •   201 

253.  Types  of  producers  for  ceramic  work 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

PRODUCER-GAS    FOR    FIRING    STEAM    BOILERS. 

254.  Field  for  use     .      . 

255.  Principle     . 

256.  Advantages      . 

257.  Requirements 

258.  Results        .      .      . 

259.  Methods  of  firing  . 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

WOOD    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

260.  Field  for  use    .     . 

261.  Types  of  producers     . 

262.  Lundin  flat-grate  gas-producer 

263.  Lundin  stepped-grate  gas-producer  215 

264.  Riche  distillation  producer    .      .      . 

265.  Riche  double-combustion  producer        .  .      •  220 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

REMOVAL   OF   TAR    FROM    GAS. 

266.  Object  and  difficulties  of  removal     .._.....     »     .      .222 

267.  Nature  of  tar   .     .     .     .     .     . 

268.  Influence  of  temperature 

269.  Elimination  of  tar       .....     .     .  •  223 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

GAS-PRODUCER   POWER  PLANTS. 

270.  Status    ......     .     .     .     .     .     .     .  ....     .      .228 

271.  Ignorance   .     .     .     .    '  ........  .....  228 

272.  Newness  of  work   .      .     .....     .     .     .  .     .     /    .      .228 

273.  Inadaptability       .     .     .     .     .     .     .     ...  ...     .     .      .229 

274.  Fuel  economy  has  not  been  imperative       .     ....     .      .      .  230 


CONTENTS.  15 

SECTION.  PAGE. 

275.  Smoke  nuisance 230 

276.  Labor  230 

277.  Cost  of  installation 231 

278.  Cost  of  repairs 231 

279.  Use  of  cheap  fuels       .  232 

280.  Scrubbing  of  gas 232 

281.  Fuel  economy  during  hours  of  idleness        232 

282.  Time  required  to  start  producer ,      .   232 

283.  Time  required  to  stop  producer 232 

284.  Composition  of  gas 233 

285.  Thermal  efficiency  and  economy 233 

286.  Automatic  feeding 233 

287.  Rate  of  gasification 233 

288.  Poking  the  producer 235 

289.  Calorific  value  of  producer-gas 235 

290.  Fuel  economy .235 

291.  No  loss  from  condensation „   235 

292.  Leakage  of  gas .235 

293.  Saving  in  shafting .      ....   236 

294.  Floor  space ;-    .      .      .  236 

295.  Control  of  operation    .      .- .   236 

296.  Dual  use  of  gas 236 

297.  Storing  of  heat  energy 236 

298.  Economy  of  water 236 

299.  Driving  isolated  machines      .  237 

300.  Range  of  sizes 237 

301.  Danger  of  explosion 237 

302.  Location  of  producer  plant    .  237 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

OPERATION    OF   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

303.  Erection      ...      .      .      .      ...      .      .     '.  .  •,,    /     .     ,      .      .  238 

304.  Starting  producer        ...      .      .      .      .      .......      .  238 

305.  Starting  engine ',  •  ,      .,  *     .  ;  .,     «      *      •   239 

306.  Stopping  producer       .      .  -.      ^     .      .      .      .'    ';'     .      .,/.'     .      .   240 

307.  Running  producer       .      .      .      .     i      .      :      .      .      .      .'".•'.      .   240 

308.  Cleaning  of  plant ,      .*     .     1      .      .      .240 

309.  Producer  troubles 241 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

TESTING   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

310.  Object  of  code ...  243 

311.  Object  of  test 243 

312.  Value  of  test 243 

313.  Determination  of  object  .      .      .      .      „      „      .......  243 


16  CONTENTS. 

SECTION. 

314.  Examination  of  producer 245 

315.  General  condition  of  producer 245 

316.  Character  of  fuel    ...           245 

317.  Calibration  of  apparatus             245 

318.  Auxiliary  boiler     .      . 246 

319.  Heating  of  producer    .                  246 

320.  Duration  of  test     .      .                                                         ....  246 

321.  Starting  and  stopping  a  test .246 

322.  Uniformity  of  conditions        ...                  ........  246 

323.  Keeping  the  records 246 

324.  Quantity  of  steam       ...                 247 

325.  Quality  of  steam 247 

326.  Measurement  of  ashes  and  refuse 247 

327.  Sampling  the  fuel  and  determining  its  moisture          247 

328.  Calorific  tests  and  fuel  analysis 248 

329.  Gas  analysis .  248 

330.  Calorific  value  of  gas        248 

331.  Determination  of  water  vapor,  tar,  and  soot  in  gas 249 

332.  Report  of  test 251 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

FUTURE   OF  THE    GAS-PRODUCER. 

333.  Outlook .  255 

334.  Producer-gas  locomotives 255 

335.  Producer-gas  power  plants  for  marine  service 257 

336.  Producer-gas  portable  engines 259 

337.  Future  development 261 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

GAS-POISONING. 

338.  Danger 263 

339.  Effect  of  carbon  monoxide    .      ....     .-     .     '.     .           .  .  263 

340.  Symptoms  of  carbon  monoxide  poisoning 264 

341.  Effect  of  carbon  dioxide         264 

342.  Effect  of  carbon  dioxide  poisoning 265 

343.  First  aid  to  sufferer 265 

344.  Artificial  respiration 265 

345.  Post-mortem  effects    .           266 

CHAPTER    XXIX.     REFERENCE  DATA,  p.  267 

CHAPTER    XXX.     BIBLIOGRAPHY,  p.  277 
APPENDIX 291 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIGS.  PAGE. 

1.  Diagram  of  vapor  tension  and  pressure 22 

2.  Zones  of  a  gas-producer 59 

3.  Diagram  of  regenerator 64 

4.  Siemens  steam  blower 73 

5.  Siemens  steam  blower .      .  74 

6.  Thwaite  steam  blower 75 

7.  Argand  steam  blower 75 

8.  Solid  jet  steam  blower 76 

9.  Eynon-Evans  steam  blower         76 

10.  Curves  showing  efficiency  of  bloweio 77 

11.  Bischof  producer 104 

12.  Ebelmen  producer 105 

13.  Ebelmen  producer 106 

14.  Ebelmen  producer 107 

15.  Ekman  producer 108 

16.  Beaufume  producer 109 

17.  Wedding  producer 110 

18.  Siemens  producer 112 

19.  Langdon  producer 114 

20.  Fuel  gas  and  Electric  Engineering  Co. 's  producer 115 

21.  Kitson  producer 117 

22.  American  Furnace  and  Machine  Co.'s  producer 119 

23.  American  Furnace  and  Machine  Co.'s  producer 119 

24.  American  Furnace  and  Machine  Co.'s  producer     ......  119 

25.  Amsler  producer .      ~     .      .      .  120 

26.  Swindell  producer 121 

27.  Swindell  producer 122 

28.  Swindell  producer 122 

29.  Forter  producer 123 

30.  Smythe  producer 124 

31.  Duff  producer 125 

32.  Duff  producer         126 

33.  Duff  producer         .     , 126 

34.  Taylor  producer     .     • 127 

35.  Taylor  producer 128 

36.  Wood  double-bosh  producer        . 129 

37.  Wood  water-seal  producer 130 

38.  Wood  flat-grate  producer       .      . 131 

39.  Wood  flat-grate  producer *    ....  132 

40.  Wood  single-bosh  water-seal  producer 133 

17 


18  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIGS.  PAGE. 

II.    Wellman  producer       .      .      .     .     .      .      .,    .    '. 134 

42.  Fraser-Talbot  producer    .  135 

43.  Fraser-Talbot  producer 136 

44.  Morgan  producer 138 

45.  Morgan  producer 140 

46.  Morgan  producer  plant 141 

47.  Loomis  producer 142 

48.  Section  of  Wile  automatic  producer 143 

49.  Assembly  of  Wile  automatic  producer 144 

50.  Wile  water-seal  producer ...    145 

51.  Wood  suction  producer 148 

52.  Otto  suction  producer 149 

53.  Weber  suction  producer 150 

54.  Backus  suction  producer 151 

55.  Wile  suction  producer 152 

56.  Nagel  suction  producer 153 

57.  Section  of  Pintsch  producer ...    154 

58.  Assembly  of  Pintsch  producer ~ 155 

59.  Crossley  suction  producer 156 

60.  Section  of  Crossley  suction  producer 157 

61.  Crossley  suction  producer  plant. 158 

62.  Section  of  Fairbanks-Morse  suction  producer  .  159 

63.  Assembly  of  Fairbanks-Morse  suction  producer 160- 

64.  Assembly  of  Smith  suction  producer 161 

65.  Grate  of  Smith  suction  producer 162 

66.  Charging  hopper  of  Smith  suction  producer     ...  .    163 

67.  Assembly  of  regulation  for  Smith  suction  producer    ...  164 

68.  Detail  of  regulator  and  superheater  for  Smith  suction  producer      .    165 

69.  Baltimore  suction  producer 166 

70.  Section  of  Wyer  producer .167 

71.  Arrangement  of  Wyer  water  regulation       .      .      .      .      ;      .      .      .    168 

72.  Moisture  collector - 170 

73.  Dust  collector 170 

74.  Moisture  collector        .............  179 

75.  Tar  collector     ....'..........  171 

76.  Tar  collector .171 

77.  Film  scrubber        •      .-.....,.....  173 

78.  Gas  cooler 173 

79.  Windhausen  scrubber       .........  174 

80.  Centrifugal  scrubber .175 

81.  Centrifugal  scrubber   .      .• 175 

82.  Mond  by-product  gas  plant Igl 

83.  Otto-Hoffman  coke  oven Igg 

84.  United-Otto  coke-oven  plant .189 

85.  Coke  quencher 192 

86.  Condensing  apparatus 194 

87.  Producer  for  ceramic  kilns 202 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  19 

FIGS'  PAGE. 

88.  Producer  for  ceramic  kilns 203 

89.  Producer  for  ceramic  kilns 204 

90.  Producer  for  ceramic  kilns 205 

91.  Producer  for  ceramic  kilns 206 

92.  Producer  for  ceramic  kilns 207 

93.  Producer  for  firing  cement  kiln 208 

94.  Producer  for  firing  cement  kiln         209 

95.  Gas-fired  water-tube  boiler 212 

96.  Application  of  gas-producer  to  steam  boiler .213 

97.  Lundin  flat-grate  producer '    „      .      .  .215 

98.  Lundin  stepped-grate  producer         216 

99.  Section  of  Riche  distillation  producer 217 

100.  Assembly  of  Riche  distillation  producer .      .   218 

101.  Section  of  Riche  double-combustion  producer       .      .      .  •    .     ...      .   219 

102.  Assembly  of  Riche  double-combustion  producer         ...  .  220 

103.  Duff-Whitfield  producer  .    " .      .      .      .      .      .      .      ...      .      .      .224 

104.  Poetter  producer 225 

105.  Wilson  producer *      ....   226 

106.  Capitaine  producer 226 

107.  Comparative  efficiency  of  steam  and  gas  plants     .      .      ;^--v     .      .   234 

108.  Log  of  gas-producer  test        • 244 

109.  Gas-sampling  apparatus         249 

110.  Gasoline  motor  car 260 

111.  Producer-gas-engine-driven  tugboat 261 

112.  Gasoline  traction  engine         262 

113.  Curve  of  correction  factors .   273 


LIST  OF  TABLES. 

TABLE.  PAGE. 

1.  .Summary  of  combustion  data .     38 

2.  Explosive  mixtures       .      .      .   t 44 

3.  Constituents  of  commercial  gases 51 

4.  Commercial  gases 50 

5.  Effect  of  temperature  on  action  of  steam 68 

6.  Effect  of  steam  on  composition  of  gas ...     69 

7.  Effect  of  different  amounts  of  steam  on  gas       .......     70 

8.  Variation  in  composition  of  gas 80 

9.  Arrangement  of  heat  balance        .  91 

10.  Data  and  results  of  producer  test       .  .         251 

11.  Saturation  table 267 

12.  Relative  humidity  of  air    .  ....  268 

13.  Coefficients  of  radiation     . 268 

14.  Radiation  ratios 268 

15.  Radiation  loss  in  iron  pipes ,  .   269 

16.  Radiation  loss  through  walls  ....  ......   269 

17.  Efficiency  of  pipe  coverings     ...  .......   270 

18.  Discharge  of  gas /    .      .   270 

19.  Equation  of  pipes    ...............   274 

20.  Solubility  of  various  gases .      .     .      .      .   275 

21.  Melting  points  of  various  salts      .      .     .     .     .     ...     .      .      .  275 

22.  Variation  in  specific  heat  of  CO2 ....  275 

23.  Mean  specific  heats  .v.     .                                                         301 

24.  Comparison  of  pressures        ..........  .   302 


20 


CHAPTER  I, 

FUNDAMENTAL    PHYSICAL    LAWS   AND    DEFINITIONS. 

§  1.     Importance  of  laws. 

To  secure  a  proper  conception  of  the  method  of  manufacture, 
the  value,  advantages,  and  applications  of  producer-gas,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  some  of  the  funda- 
mental laws  and  definitions  of  physics  and  chemistry;  these  are 
given  in  concise  form  in  this  and  the  following  chapter. 

§  2.    Forms  of  matter. 

A  solid  is  a  substance  which  has  more  or  less  rigidity  of  form. 
A  fluid  is  a  substance  which  has  no  rigidity  of  form.  A  liquid 
is  a  fluid  capable  of  having  a  free  surface  and  of. which  the  volume 
is  definite.  A  gas  is  a  fluid  of  which  the  volume  is  limited  only 
by  that  of  the  closed  containing  vessel. 

§  3.    Perfect  gas. 

A  gas  which  strictly  follows  Boyle's  law  (§11)  is  called  a  per- 
fect gas. 

§  4.    Distinction  between  a  vapor  and  a  gas. 

A  vapor  is  a  substance  in  the  gaseous  state  at  any  temperature 
below  the  critical  point.  A  vapor  can  be  reduced  to  a  liquid 
by  pressure  alone,  and  may  exist  as  a  saturated  vapor  in  the 
presence  of  its  own  liquid.  A  gas  is  the  form  which  any  liquid 
assumes  above  its  critical  temperature,  and  it  cannot  be  liquefied 
by  pressure  alone,  but  only  by  combined  pressure  and  cooling. 
The  critical  point  is  the  line  of  demarcation  between  a  vapor 
and  a  gas.  The  temperature  of  the  substance  at  the  critical 
point  is  the  critical  temperature.  The  pressure  which  at  the 
critical  temperature  just  suffices  to  condense  the  gas  to  the 
liquid  form  is  called  the  critical  pressure.  The  following  are  a 
few  of  these: 


21 


22       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


CRITICAL  TEMPERATURES. 

CO2 30.92  C. 

C2H4 9.2 

CH4 -81.8 

O  .  -118. 

CO -141.1 

N.  -146. 

H..  -220. 

H2O -370. 


CRITICAL  PRESSURES. 
77.    atmospheres. 


.  58. 
.  54.9 

50. 
.  35.9 
.  35. 
.  20. 
195. 


§  5.    Vapor  tension. 

All  liquids  tend  to  assume  the  gaseous  state,  and  the  measure 
of  this  tendency  is  the  vapor  tension  of  the  liquid. 

§  6.    Vapor  pressure. 

For  a  given  liquid  there  corresponds  to  each  temperature  a 
certain  definite  pressure  of  its  vapor,  at  which  the  two  will  re- 


--t--  vfc? 


FIG.  1.  —  DIAG"RAM  OF  VAPOR 
TENSION  AND  PRESSURE. 

main  in  contact  unchanged.  Thus  in  Fig.  1  the  gas  pressure, 
P,  of  the  vapor,  V,  balances  the  vapor  tension,  T,  of  the  liquid  L. 
This  gas  pressure  is  said  to  be  the  vapor  pressure  of  the  liquid 
at  that  temperature,  and  the  vapor  itself  is  said  to  be  saturated. 
The  relation  between  water-vapor  pressure  at  .saturation  and 
temperature  is  shown  in  table  11,  p.  267=  For  the  application 
of  this,  see  §  331. 

§  7.   Saturation. 

A  gas  is  saturated  when  its  full  capacity  of  a  given  volume  of 
vapor  has  been  reached. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PHYSICAL  LAWS  AND  DEFINITIONS.     23 

§  8.    Humidity. 

The  state  of  a  gas,  with  reference  to  vapor  that  it  contains,  is 
called  its  humidity. 

§  9.    Absolute  humidity. 

The  amount  of  vapor  actually  present  is  called  the  absolute 
humidity  for  a  given  temperature. 

§  10.    Relative  humidity. 

The  absolute  humidity  divided  by  the  amount  of  vapor  that 
might  exist  if  the  gas  were  saturated  at  the  given  temperature 
gives  a  ratio  called  the  relative  humidity.  This  is  usually  ex- 
pressed in  percentages;  thus,  air  with  a  relative  humidity  of 
50  per  cent  has  just  half  as  much  water  vapor  in  it  as  it  could 
hold  at  the  corresponding  temperature.  Table  12,  p.  268,  gives 
the  relative  humidity  of  air. 

§  11.    Boyle's  or  Mariotte's  law. 

In  a  perfect  gas  the  volume  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
pressure  to  which  the  gas  is  subjected ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing, 
the  product  of  the  pressure  and  the  volume  of  a  given  quantity 
of  gas  remains  constant. 

§  12.    Law  of  Charles. 

The  volume  of  a  given  mass  of  any  gas,  under  constant  pres- 
sure, increases  from  the  freezing  point  by  a  constant  fraction 
of  its  volume  at  zero.  In  other  words,  gases  expand  zh  of  their 
volume  at  0  degrees  C.  for  each  degree  C.  rise  of  temperature, 
and  ?5T  of  their  volume  at  32  degrees  F.  for  each  degree  F.  rise 
of  temperature. 

§  13.    Laws  of  Boyle  and  Charles  combined. 

The  combination  of  these  two  laws  shows  that  the  product 
of  the  volume  and  pressure  of  any  mass  of  gas  is  proportional  to 
its  absolute  temperature. 

Let  V  =  volume  corresponding  to  temp.  0  degrees  C.,  and 
pressure  P  =  760  mm. 

Let  v  =  volume  corresponding  to  temp,  t  degrees  C.,  and 
pressure  p. 

v  =  V+  — xtV  =  V  +.00366*7  =  7  (1-f . 00366*). 
273 

V 


I  +  .00366* 


24       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

VD 

But  PV-jn,  hence      -  - 


As  the  presence  of  water  vapor  in  a  gas  also  influences  its 
volume,  the  vapor  tension  must  be  taken  into  account.  Let 
a  =  vapor  tension  corresponding  to  t  degrees.  For  values  of  a, 
see  table  11,  p.  267. 


760  (1  +  .003660 


This  may  be  worked  out  in  a  similar  manner  for  Fahrenheit 
temperatures. 

§  14.   Joule's  law  of  gases. 

No  change  of  temperature  occurs  when  a  perfect  gas  is  allowed 
to  expend  without  doing  external  work,  or  without  taking  in 
or  giving  out  heat. 

§  15.   Law  of  Gay-Lussac. 

Equal  volumes  of  all  gases  at  the  same  temperature  and  pres- 
sure contain  the  same  number  of  molecules. 

§  16.    Dalton's  law. 

A  mixture  of  gases,  having  no  chemical  action  on  each  other, 
exerts  a  pressure  which  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  pressures 
which  would  be  produced  by  each  gas  separately,  provided  it 
occupied  the  containing  vessel  alone  at  the  given  temperature. 

§  17.    Temperature.     (See  App.,  note  1.) 
Temperature  is  the  measure  of  the  degree  of  hotness  of  a  body. 

§  18.    Thermal  capacity. 

The  thermal  capacity  of  a  substance  is  the  heat  required  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  unit  mass  of  it  one  degree. 

§  19.   Specific  heat. 

The  specific  heat  of  a  substance  is  the  ratio  between  the  ther- 
mal capacities  of  equal  masses  of  the  substance  and  water. 

§  20.   Specific  heat  of  gases.     (See  App.,  note  2.) 

A  gas  has  two  specific  heats,  depending  on  whether  it  is  kept 
at  constant  volume  or  at  constant  pressure  while  being  heated. 
The  specific  heat  of  gases  also  varies  with  the  temperature. 
This  is  shown  in  table  22,  p.  275. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PHYSICAL  LAWS  AND  DEFINITIONS.     25 

§  21.    Heat  unit.      (See  App.,  note  3.) 

The  unit  quantity  of  heat,  or  the  heat  unit,  is  the  heat  required 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  unit  weight  of  water  one  degree. 

The  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  one  degree  F.  is 
called  a  British  thermal  heat  unit,  B.  t.  u. 

The  heat  required  to  raise  one  gram  of  water  one  degree  C. 
is  called  a  gram-calory. 

The  heat  required  to  raise  one  kilogram  of  water  one  degree 
C.  is  called  a  calory. 

The  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  one  degree  C. 
is  called  the  Centigrade  unit,  C.  u. 

§  22.   Density  of  gases. 

The  density,  or  the  specific  weight,  of  a  gas  is  the  mass  con- 
tained in  a  unit  volume  of  the  gas.  Column  G,  table  3,  p.  51, 
gives  the  density  of  various  gases  where  the  unit  of  volume  is 
the  cubic  foot. 

§  23.   Specific  volume. 

The  specific  volume  of  a  gas  is  the  number  of  units  of  volume 
which  are  occupied  by  a  unit  weight  of  the  gas.  Column  H, 
table  3,  p.  51,  gives  the  specific  volumes  of  various  gases  in  terms 
of  cubic  feet  and  pounds. 

§  24.   Specific  gravity. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  gas  is  the  ratio  of  its  density  to  the 
density  of  another  gas  taken  as  a  standard.  Hydrogen  and  air 
are  the  standards  that  are  generally  used.  Columns  E  and  F 
of  table  3,  p.  51,  give  the  values  for  different  gases.  The  specific 
gravity  of  producer-gas  is  usually  about  0.86- with  reference  to 
air.  For  the  method  of  calculating  the  specific  gravity  of  pro- 
ducer-gas, see  §  58. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  specific  gravity  of  a  gas  is 
affected  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas,  and  for  that  reason  the  values 
are  referred  to  a  standard  condition  (see  §  25).  Thus,  if  the 
gas  pressure  is  10  per  cent  more  than  that  for  the  standard  con- 
dition, the  specific  gravity  will  also  be  increased  about  10  per 
cent;  if  the  gas  pressure  is  less  than  the  standard,  the  specific 
gravity  will  be  decreased  by  about  the  same  per  cent. 

§  25.    Standard  conditions. 

Since  the  volume  of  a  gas  varies  with  the  temperature  and 
pressure,  in  order  to  secure  comparable  results  in  gas  calculations 


26       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

a  standard  condition  is  necessary.  This  is  usually  taken  as 
0  degrees  C.  and  a  pressure  of  760  millimeters  of  mercury,  abbre- 
viated 0  degrees  C.,  760  mm.;  or  its  equivalent,  32  degrees  Fahren- 
heit and  a  pressure  of  29.92  inches  of  mercury,  abbreviated  32 
degrees  F.,  29.92  in. 

§  26.    Parallel  and  opposite  currents. 

The  construction  of  most  gas-producers  used  for  power  pur- 
poses is  such  that  the  gas  is  cooled  by  another  fluid  as  it  leaves 
the  producer.  This  makes  it  desirable  to  understand  some  of 
the  fundamental  cooling  phenomena.  On  account  of  limited 
space  in  this  book,  the  discussion  must  be  brief.  For  a  detailed 
discussion  the  reader  is  referred  to  B  190,  from  which  the  follow- 
ing is  taken  : 

Two  liquids,  gases  or  vapors,  one  of  which  is  to  transfer  heat 
to  the  other,  may  be  conducted  either  in  the  same  or  in  opposite 
directions  over  the  surface  of  separation.  If  the  two  fluids 
move  parallel  to  one  another  in  the  same  direction,  this  con- 
dition is  known  as  that  of  parallel  currents. 

If,  however,  they  move  in  opposite  directions,  the  condition 
is  that  of  opposite  currents. 

In  the  case  of  opposite  currents,  the  fluid  to  be  cooled  and  also 
the  fluid  to  be  heated  have  their  highest  temperatures  at  one 
end  and  their  lowest  temperatures  at  the  other;  and  the  cooling 
medium  may  flow  away  at  a  temperature  only  slightly  lower 
than  the  highest  temperature  of  the  hot  fluid. 

In  the  case  of  parallel  currents,  the  fluid  to  be  cooled  has  its 
highest  temperature  at  the  commencement,  the  fluid  to  be  heated 
its  lowest  temperature;  at  the  end  the  reverse  is  the  case,  and 
the  cooling  medium  must  always  run  off  at  a  temperature  lower 
than  the  lowest  temperature  of  the  hot  fluid.  Parallel  currents 
require  much  more  cooling  fluid  than  opposite  currents.  Like- 
wise, in  order  to  heat  a  cold  fluid  by  means  of  a  hot  fluid,  much 
more  hot  fluid  must  be  used  with  parallel  than  with  opposite 
currents.  Further,  the  greatest  difference  in  temperature  occurs 
between  the  highest  temperature  of  the  hot  and  the  lowest 
temperature  of  the  cold  fluid,  the  smallest  difference  in  tem- 
perature between  the  lowest  temperature  of  the  hot  and  the 
highest  temperature  of  the  cold  fluid.  The  first-named  differ- 
ence is  the  greatest  which  arises  under  any  conditions;  the  second 


FUNDAMENTAL  PHYSICAL  LAWS  AND  DEFINITIONS.     27 

is  always  very  much  less,  which  is  also  the  case  with  opposite 
currents. 

Since  with  opposite  currents  the  highest  possible  temperature 
difference  can  never  occur,  it  follows  at  once,  in  general,  that 
the  mean  difference  in  temperature  is  greater  with  parallel  than 
with  opposite  currents,  and  consequently  that  in  the  former 
case  the  necessary  heating  or  cooling  surface  may  almost  always 
be  smaller  than  in  the  latter  case.  An  opposite-current  apparatus 
is  thus  always  larger  than  a  parallel-current  apparatus,  but  is 
more  efficient,  and,  in  particular  with  similar  materials,  permits 
the  attainment  of  the  highest  temperatures  in  heating  apparatus 
and  the  lowest  temperatures  in  cooling,  which  it  is  impossible 
to  obtain  with  parallel  currents.  In  conclusion,  heating  and 
cooling  apparatus  should  always  be  constructed  for  opposite 
currents. 

§  27.    Radiation. 

To  secure  a  high  efficiency  in  any  gas-producer,  it  is  impera- 
tive to  keep  the  radiation  loss  (§  147)  low,  and  to  do  this  requires 
a  compliance  with  the  laws  of  radiation.  "Radiation  of  heat 
takes  place  between  bodies  at  all  distances  apart  and  follows 
the  laws  for  the  radiation  of  light.  The  heat  rays  travel  in 
straight  lines,  and  the  intensity  of  the  rays  radiated  from  any 
one  source  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  from 
the  source.  Heat  rays  are  reflected  according  to  the  law  of  optics, 
that  the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection." 

If  the  temperature  difference  is  small,  the  radiation  loss  will 
depend  on  the  material,  area,  and  temperature  difference.  Table 
13,  p.  268,  gives  the  radiation  coefficients  as  determined  by 
Peclet.  These  coefficients  are  not  reliable  for  large  tempera- 
ture ranges,  since  a  considerable  difference  in  the  temperature 
of  the  hot  body  and  the  surrounding  air  causes  an  increased 
rate  of  cooling  which  varies  with  the  magnitude  of  the  tempera- 
ture range.  These  corrections  are  given  in  table  14,  p.  268. 
The  number  of  heat  units  radiated  from  a  given  material  and  area 
should  first  be  computed  by  the  coefficients  of  radiation  given 
in  table  13,  and  the  result  multiplied  by  the  ratio  of  the  respec- 
tive temperature  range  as  given  in  table  14. 

Table  15,  p.  269,  shows  the  radiation  loss  from  exposed  iron 
pipes,  and  is  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  the  use  of  heat  insu- 


28       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

lators  around  pipes  conveying  a  hot  fluid  that  is  to  be  kept  at  a 
high  temperature. 

Table  16,  p.  269,  gives  the  radiation  loss  through  masonry 
walls,  and  shows  the  desirability  of  enclosing  the  producer  in  a 
suitable  jacket. 

Table  17,  p.  270,  shows  the  efficiency  of  various  heat-insulating 

materials. 

§  28.    Flow  of  gases.     (See  App.,  note  5.) 

The  velocity  with  which  a  gas  under  pressure  will  flow  into  a 
vacuum  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  its  density. 
Thus  hydrogen,  which  is  sixteen  times  heavier  than  oxygen,  would, 
under  the  same  conditions,  flow  through  an  opening  with  four 
times  the  velocity  of  oxygen.  Hence,  it  is  evident  that  the 
specific  gravity  of  a  gas  is  an  important  factor  in  its  flow. 

The  motion  of  gas  in  pipes  may  be  determined  by  the  follow- 
ing formulae: 

H =Head  or  pressure  in  inches  of  water. 

Q  =  Quantity  of  gas  in  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

L  =  Length  of  pipe  in  yards. 

D  =  Diameter  of  pipe   in   inches. 

G  =  Specific  gravity  of  gas. 


D=.056C/Q2XgXL- 
»          H 


Table  18,  p.  270,  which  was  calculated  by  the  above  formula, 
gives  the  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  hour  through  pipes  of  various 
diameters  and  lengths  and  at  different  pressures,  for  a  gas  of  a 
specific  gravity  of  0.4.  The  quantity  of  gas  discharged  of  any 
other  specific  gravity  may  be  determined  by  means  of  the  curve 
given  in  Fig.  113.  To  apply  this,  multiply  the  quantity  indicated 
in  table  18  by  the  correction  factor  corresponding  to  the  particu- 
lar specific  gravity.  Thus,  for  a  gas  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.85,  the  quantity  indicated  in  table  18  must  be  multiplied  by 
0.685. 

§  29.    Equation  of  pipes. 

The  volume  delivered  by  two  pipes  of  different  sizes  and  the 
same  velocity  of  flow  is  proportional  to  the  squares  of  their 


FUNDAMENTAL  PHYSICAL  LAWS  AND  DEFINITIONS.     29 

diameters;  thus  one  4-in.  pipe  will  deliver  the  same  volume  as 
four  2-in.  pipes.  However,  with  the  same  head  the  velocity  will 
be  less  in  the  2-in.  pipes  on  account  of  the  larger  amount  of  sur- 
face friction  in  the  latter,  and  the  volume  delivered  varies  about 
as  the  square  roots  of  the  fifth  powers  of  the  respective  diameters. 
Table  19,  p.  274,  has  been  calculated  on  this  basis.  The  figures 
opposite  the  intersection  of  any  two  sizes  is  the  number  of  the 
smaller  sized  pipes  required  to  equal  one  of  the  larger.  Thus 
one  5-in.  pipe  is  equal  to  9.8  2-in.  pipes. 


CHAPTER  II. 

FUNDAMENTAL    CHEMICAL    LAWS    AND    DEFINITIONS.1 

§  30.   Division  of  matter. 

Matter  may  be  divided  into  elements,  compounds,  and  mechani- 
cal mixtures. 

A  chemically  indivisible  substance  is  an  element.  Elements 
unite  to  form  new  substances  called  compounds,  which  may  be 
entirely  different  from  the  original  elements. 

A  compound  may  be  defined  as  a  substance  made  up  of  two 
or  more  elements,  or  it  is  a  substance  that  may  be  broken  up 
into  other  substances. 

A  mechanical  mixture  is  a  substance  composed  of  two  or 
more  elements  not  held  together  by  any  chemical  attraction. 
Producer-gas  is  a  mixture  of  other  gases. 

§  31.    Atoms  and  molecules. 

An  atom  is  the  smallest  particle  of  an  element  that  can  enter 
into  chemical  combination.  Atoms  combine  to  form  molecules 
of  substances. 

§  32.    Chemical  affinity. 

The  force  which  holds  the  atoms  of  a  molecule  together  is 
called  chemical  affinity. 

§  33.    Laws  of  thermal  chemistry. 

The  heat  evolved  or  absorbed  in  any  chemical  change  is  fixed 
and  definite,  and  depends  only  on  that  change. 

If  a  chemical  change  evolves  or  absorbs  heat,  the  reverse 
change  will  absorb  or  evolve  exactly  the  same  quantity  of  heat. 

Every  chemical  change  effected  without  the  intervention  of 
extraneous  forces  tends  to  produce  those  bodies  the  formation 
of  which  will  evolve  the  least  heat. 

§  34.   Endothermic  reaction. 

Any  chemical  change  that  absorbs  heat  is  called  endothermic, 
and  is  indicated  by  the  sign-.  (See  §  117.) 

1  See  App.,  note  6. 
30 


FUNDAMENTAL  CHEMICAL  LAWS  AND  DEFINITIONS.      31 

§  35.    Exothermic  reaction. 

Any  chemical  change  that  evolves  heat  is  called  exothermic, 
and  is  indicated  by  the  sign  +. 

§  36.    Law  of  definite  proportion. 

Chemical  changes  always  take  place  between  definite  masses 
of  substances. 

§  37.    Law  of  multiple  proportion. 

If  two  elements  form  several  compounds  with  each  other,  the 
masses  of  one  that  combine  with  a  fixed  mass  of  the  other  bear 
a  simple  ratio  to  one  another. 

§  38.    Nascent  state. 

An  element  is  in  the  nascent  state  if,  at  the  moment  of  its 
liberation  from  a  compound,  it  is  characterized  by  abnormal 
chemical  activity. 

§  39.    Oxidation. 

Oxidation,  also  called  oxidization,  is  the  act  or  process  of 
taking  up,  or  combining  with,  oxygen. 

§  40.    Reduction. 
Reduction  is  the  abstraction  of  oxygen  from  a  compound. 

§  41.    Combustion. 

Combustion  is  a  vigorous  chemical  combination  attended  by 
the  evolution  of  heat  and  light.  It  may  also  be  defined  as  the 
"burning  or  chemical  combination  of  the  constituents  of  the 
fuel,  mostly  carbon  and  hydrogen,  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air." 

§  42.    Temperature  of  combustion. 

A  certain  temperature,  varying  with  the  nature  of  the  com- 
bustible and  air  supply,  is  necessary  for  combustion.  For  the 
calculation  of  this  temperature  see  §  64. 

§  43.    Dissociation. 

When  a  substance  decomposes  and  splits  up  into  its  constitu- 
ents by  the  application  of  heat,  in  a  reversible  way,  and  yields 
a  larger  number  of  molecules  than  composed  the  initial  body, 
it  is  said  to  dissociate.  Thus  if  CO2  and  H20  are  heated  suffi- 
ciently, they  are  split  up  or  dissociated  into  their  constituents, 
the  H2O  being  broken  up  into  H  and  O,  and  CO2  into  C  and  O. 

§  44.    Dissociation  temperature. 
This  is  the  temperature  at  which  dissociation  takes  place;  it 


32       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

is  not  a  fixed  point,  but  varies  with  the  conditions.  It  is  gen- 
erally lowered  by  contact  with  hot  solids  and  raised  by  the  pres- 
ence of  inert  gases. 

§  45.    Heat  of  decomposition. 

In  the  decomposition  of  a  chemical  compound,  as  much  heat 
is  absorbed  or  rendered  latent  as  was  evolved  when  the  com- 
pound was  formed. 

§  46.    Flame. 

A  flame  is  a  mass  of  intensely  heated  combustible  gas.  A 
b-imple  flame  is  one  in  which  there  is  only  one  product  of  com- 
bustion; if  there  is  more  than  one  product  of  combustion  the 
flame  is  compound. 

§  47.    Atomic  and  molecular  weights.      (See  App.,  note  7.) 

The  atomic  and  molecular  weights  of  the  elements  entering  into 
producer-gas  are  given  in  columns  C  and  D  of  table  3,  p.  51. 
A  knowledge  of  these  makes  it  a  matter  of  simple  arithmetic  to 
determine  how  many  pounds  of  each  element  are  in  a  given 
weight  of  the  combination.  One  atom  of  carbon  unites  with  two 
atoms  of  oxygen  to  form  one  molecule  of  carbon  dioxide;  thus, 

C  -I-      20  =  C02,  or  in  pounds, 
12  +  2x16  =  12  +  32 
12+       32  =  44 
3+         8=11 

That  is,  3  pounds  of  carbon  unite  with  8  pounds  of  oxygen  to 
form  11  pounds  of  carbon  dioxide  ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  form 
1  pound  of  carbon  dioxide  there  will  be  required  -j\  pound  of 
carbon  and  j8T  pound  of  oxygen. 

One  atom  of  carbon  unites  with  one  atom  of  oxygen  to  form 
one  molecule  of  carbon  monoxide.  Thus: 

C+  O  =  CO 
12+16  =  28 
3+   4  =  7 


That  is,  3  pounds  of  carbon  unite  with  4  pounds  of  oxygen  to 
form  7  pounds  carbon  monoxide;  or,  in  other  words,  to  form  1 
pound  of  carbon  monoxide  there  will  be  required  f  pound  of 
carbon  and  £  pound  of  oxygen. 


FUNDAMENTAL  CHEMICAL  LAWS  AND  DEFINITIONS.      33 

In  other  words,  to  burn  1  pound  of  carbon  to  carbon  monoxide, 
there  will  be  required  1J  pound  of  oxygen,  and  this  will  form  2J 
pounds  of  the  carbon  monoxide. 

§  48.    Destructive  distillation. 

Destructive  distillation  is  the  process  of  heating  a  substance 
beyond  the  point  of  decomposition  without  the  access  of  air. 
The  object  may  be  the  dry  residue,  the  condensed  distillate,  or 
the  gases  evolved.  The  residue  will  always  be  carbon. 

§  49.    Fractional  distillation. 

This  is  the  separating  of  different  constituents  from  a  com- 
posite substance.  It  is  made  possible  by  the  fact  that  different 
substances  pass  into  vapors  at  different  temperatures. 

§  50.    Direct-firing.     (B  194.) 

"  By  direct-firing  is  meant  burning  coal  or  other  solid  fuel  in  a 
fire-box  close  to  the  working  chamber,  and  in  a  layer  so  .thin 
that  enough  free  atmospheric  oxygen  passes  through  some  of 
the  wider  crevices  between  the  lumps  of  fuel,  both  to  burn  the 
carbonic  oxide  generated  by  the  incomplete  combustion  of  the 
fuel  by  the  limited  quantity  of  air  which  passes  through  other 
and  narrower  crevices,  and  also  to  burn  the  hydrocarbons,  if 
any,  distilled  from  the  fuel.  Thus  both  the  combustible  gas  and 
the  air  for  burning  it  escape  simultaneously  and  side  by  side 
from  the  surface  of  the  fuel,  the  flame  beginning  at  the  very 
surface  of  the  fuel." 

§  51.    Gas-firing.      (B   194.) 

"  By  gas-firing  is  meant  chiefly  burning  the  fuel  in  a  layer  so 
thick  that  all  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  which  passes  through  it 
combines  with  the  fuel,  and  that  nearly  all  of  it  forms  carbonic 
oxide  with  the  carbon  of  the  fuel;  so  that  from  the  surface  of  the 
fuel  escapes  a  stream  of  combustible  gas,  chiefly  the  carbonic 
oxide  thus  formed,  and  hydrocarbons  from  the  distillation  of 
the  fuel,  diluted  with  atmospheric  nitrogen.  The  stream  of  gas 
is  in  turn  burnt  by  air  specially  admitted  for  this  purpose." 

"  In  short,  in  direct-firing  the  fuel  bed  is  so  thin  that  it  delivers 
flame  direct  from  its  surface;  in  gas-firing  it  is  so  thick  that  it 
delivers  there  a  stream  simply  of  combustible  gas.  This  is  the 
essential  distinction." 


CHAPTER  III. 

THERMAL    AND    PHYSICAL    CALCULATIONS. 

§  52.  Determination  of  the  specific  heat  of  a  mixed  gas.  (App.,  note  2.) 
The  number  of  heat  units  absorbed  in  heating  a  given  volume 
of  a  mixed  gas  through  a  given  range  of  temperature  will  be  the 
aggregate  number  of  heat  units  absorbed  by  the  several  con- 
stituents. The  number  of  heat  units  absorbed  by  each  con- 
stituent will  be  the  product  of  its  volume,  expressed  in  cubic 
feet,  and  its  specific  heat  per  cubic  foot.  To  simplify  the  cal- 
culation, we  assume  that  the  total  100  stands  for  100  cubic  feet 
of  the  gas;  then  the  percentage  of  each  constituent  will  stand 
for  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  the  respective  constituents  in  the 
hundred.  This  calculation  is  illustrated  by  the  following  ex- 
ample: 

C 

.0077 
.1615 
1.1577  ' 
.4404 
.1378 
.0633 
.0115 

1.9799 
.0198 

A  Composition  of  gas  in  percentage  by  volume. 

B  Specific  heat  per  cubic  foot,  column  J,  table  3,  p.  51. 

C  Specific  heat  of  100  cubic  feet  of  mixed  gas. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  specific  heats  of  0,  H,  N,  and  CO 
are  nearly  the  same.  The  amount  of  C2H4  in  any  ordinary 
producer-gas  is  too  small  to  affect  the  result  materially,  CH4  and 
CO*  being  the  only  factors  whose  variation  alters  the  general 
value  to  any  extent.  The  gas  analysis  given  is  a  representative 
one,  and  in  ordinary  practice  the  specific  heat  per  cubic  foot  of 
producer-gas  will  not  be  found  to  vary  much  from  the  value 
calculated. 

34 


o.. 

A 

.4.. 

.   X 

B 
.019 

H  

N 

....     8.5... 
60.3 

...x.. 

-  .  •  X  .  • 

.019... 
0192  

CO  
CO,  
CH< 

....  22.8.. 
....     5.2... 
24 

...x.. 
...x.. 

X 

..     .0193  
..     .0265  ' 
.0264  

C2H4  

4... 

..  x. 

0289..!..:!  !;.!.!.!. 

100.0 

Spec 

ific  heat  of  100  cu.  ft. 

THERMAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CALCULATIONS.  35 

§  53.    Determination  of  the  calorific  power  of  a  mixed  gas. 

The  number  of  heat  units  produced  by  the  combustion  of  a 
given  volume  of  mixed  gas  will  be  the  aggregate  number  of  heat 
units  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  several  constituents. 
The  number  of  heat  units  produced  by  each  constituent  will  be 
the  product  of  its  volume,  expressed  in  cubic  feet,  and  its  calorific 
power,  expressed  in  heat  units  per  cubic  foot.  This  calculation 
is  illustrated  by  the  following  example: 


CO2 

A 
5.2 

Bi 

C 

o  

C,,H4..   .. 
CO  
H  
CH4  

N  

4 
4... 
22.8... 
.   ....     8.5... 
2.4... 
60.3 

..1670... 
342  

346  
1070.... 

AxB  
.    ...AxB  
...    .AxB  
AxB  

.•  .  -      668 
.  .  =    7797 
..=    2941 

..=    2778 

100    cu. 

ft.  gives 

14184  B    t    u 

1    cu. 

ft.  gives.  .  . 

141  B.  t.  u. 

A  Composition  of  gas  in  percentage  by  volume. 

B  Calorific  power  per  cubic  foot,  column  R,  table  3,  p.  51. 

C  Calorific  power  in  100  cubic  feet  of  mixed  gas. 


§  54.    Carbon-ratio.     (B  66.) 

A  knowledge  of  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  carbon  to  the  weight 
of  hydrogen  in  a  given  gas  is  often  desirable.  While  the  amount 
of  hydrogen  in  the  gas  for  one  unit  weight  of  carbon  depends 
primarily  upon  the  amount  of  the  former  in  the  original  fuel, 
yet  this  proportion  is  changed  by  the  loss  of  carbon  with  the  ashes, 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  steam,  and  by  Trie  loss  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  with  the  tar  and  soot.  As  a  result  of  these  factors, 
the  relative  amount  of  hydrogen  in  the  gas  from  a  unit  weight 
of  fuel  is  always  higher  than  in  the  original  fuel. 

The  "  carbon-ratio "  may  be  defined  as  the  numerical  value 
of  the  total  carbon  by  weight  divided  by  the  total  weight  of 
hydrogen  in  a  given  volume  of  the  gas,  and  is  designated  by  the 

C 

symbols   ^'     This   value    will    indicate    the    special   conditions 
H 

under  which  the  sample  of  gas  —  from  which  the  ratio  was  cal- 
culated —  was  made. 

The  calculation  of  the  carbon  ratio  is  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing: 

1  See  A  pp.,  note  8. 


36       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


CO,.... 

o  

A 
5.2  
4 

B 
...C. 

12  

C 

6  

D 
31.2 

E 

(C 

24 

..12  

4.8 

C2H«... 

4  

•  •  m 

2 

8 

PO 

00  Q 

In. 

c 

VL 

6     .... 

136.8 

\j\j  — 

o  t; 

H 

2 

.   .   1  

..    8.5 

1C 

12 

6 

14.4 

CH,... 

2.4  

••  m 

o 

4  8 

N  

60.3 

In. 

100.0 

187.2 

14.1 

A  Composition  of  gas  by  volume  -  number  of  molecules. 

B  Weights  of  elements. 

C  Relative  weights. 

D  Relative  weights  of  atoms  of  carbon.     AxC. 

E  Relative  weights  of  atoms  of  hydrogen.     AxC. 

..       187.2     1Q, 
Carbon-rat  io=—r  —  =  lo.o 
14.1 

§55.    Calculation  of  volume  of  gas.     (B  66.) 

The  calculation  of  the  volume  of  gas  from  a  given  weight  of 
fuel  is  illustrated  by  the  following  example: 

E 
.174 

.026 
.763 

.080 


C02... 

o. 

A 

...     5.2  
.4 

B 
.  .123  .  .  .  . 

C 

.  .  .  .638. 

D 

C2H<. 
CO... 
H 

4  
22.8  
.  .     8.5 

.  .078  . 
.  .078  .  .  . 

.  .031. 
...1.780. 

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  \  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

CHY. 

N.. 

.  ...     2.4  
.  .  .  .  60.3 

.  .0445.... 

...  .107. 

1  

100.0  1.043 

A  Composition  of  gas  by  volume. 

B  Weight  of  1  cu.  ft.  of  gas  in  pounds  (column  G,  table  3,  p.  51.) 
C  Weight  of  component  in  100  cu.  ft.  of  gas,  AxB. 
D  Proportion  by  weight  of  carbon  in  gas  (column  K,  table  3,  p.  51.) 
E  Weight  of  carbon  in  100  cu.  ft.  of  gas,  DxC. 
From  the  above  the  carbon  in  100  cu.  ft.  of  gas  =  1.043  Ib. 
and  the  carbon  in  1  cu.  ft.  of  gas  =  .01043  Ib. 

Volume  of  gas  containing  1  Ib.  of  carbon=-—  —  =96.1  cu.  ft. 


Let  K=proportion  of  carbon  in  1  Ib.  of  fuel. 

Let  G=grate  efficiency  of  producer  (see  §  139). 

Let  Q  =  carbon  actually  gasified  —  i.e.,  total  carbon  in  fuel  less  that 

passed  through  grate. 
Q  =  KxG. 
Hence  the  volume  at  standard  conditions  of  producer-gas  per  pound 

of  fuel  =96.1  XQ. 

§  56.    Theoretical  combustion.     (B  66.) 

The  combustible  constituents  of  ordinary  producer-gas   com- 
bine with  oxygen  according  to  the  following  reactions: 


THERMAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CALCULATIONS. 


37 


+  2H2O. 
CH4+4O  =    C02  +  2H2O. 

2H  +   O  =  H2O. 
CO    +   0  =  C02. 

In  order  to  determine  the  amount  of  oxygen  required  in  each 
case,  it  will  be  necessary  to  know  in  what  proportion  they  combine 
both  by  weight  and  by  volume.  The  gravimetric  relation  —  i.e., 
the  relative  proportion  by  weight  —  can  be  determined  directly 
from  the  atomic  weights.  The  volumetric  relation  is  found  by 
dividing  the  relative  weight  of  each  by  its  weight  per  cubic  unit  of 
volume.  For  the  discussion  of  atomic  weights  see  §  47.  The  volu- 
metric ratios  given  are  not  always  exact,  but  are  near  enough  for 
all  engineering  calculations.  In  order  .to  determine  the  volume 
of  all  the  products  of  combustion,  it  is  necessary  to  assume  that 
they  leave  the  furnace  at  a  temperature  above  212  degrees  F.,  so 
that  the  water  is  in  the  form  of  steam.  In  the  following  calcu- 
lations the  water  vapor  is  taken  at  228  degrees  F.,  which  corre- 
sponds to  20  pounds  absolute  pressure;  at  this  point  the  weight 
of  water  vapor  per  cubic  foot  is  .0502  Ib.  A  detailed  calculation 
for  each  of  the  combustion  reactions  is  given  in  the  following: 


C2H4 


Relative  weights  of  atoms 28 

Ratio  of  weight 1 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 078 

Relative  volume 12.7 

Ratio  by  volume 1  cu.  ft.     3  cu.  ft.      2  cu.  ft. 

T.  ,   , .  Ratio  by  weight 

Relative  volume  =  .„  .  . — - —      7 — 

Weight  per  cu.ft. 


+6O  =2CO2 

+96  =     88 

+  -2^  =      ^ 
.089  .123 

38.3  25.5 


+  2H2O 
+       36 

+  :f 

.0502* 
25.6 
2  cu.  ft. 


That  is,  1  Ib.  of  C2H4  unites  with  2_4  ib.  of  0  to  form  2y2  Ib.  CO2, 
and  |-  Ib.  H2O,  or,  in  terms  of  volume,  1  cu.  ft.  of  C2H4,  unites 
with  3  cu.  ft.  of  O  to  form  2  cu.  ft.  of  CO2  and  2  cu.  ft.  of  H2O. 


CH4           +4O  =CO2 

Relative  weights  of  atoms 16           +64  =44 

Ratio  by  weight 1            +4  =    -^ 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 045            .089  .123 

Relative  volume 22.2            43.8  22.3 

Ratio  by  volume 1  cu.  ft.     2  cu.  ft.  1  cu.  ft. 

2H  +0 

Relative  weights  of  atoms 2  +16 

Ratio  by  weight 1  +   8 

Weight  per  cubic  foot .0056  .089 

Relative  volume 179.  89.5 

Ratio  by  volume 2  cu.  ft.     1  cu.  ft. 

*  Water  vapor  at  228°  F. 


+  2H2O 
+       36 

.0502* 

44.77 

2  cu.  ft. 

=  H2O 

=       18 

=.       9 

.0502* 

179. 

2  cu.  ft. 


38       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

CO  +  O  =CO2 

Relative  weights  of  atoms  28  +16  =44 

Ratio  by  weight ...".; 1  +   $  =  U 

Weight  per  cubic  foot .  .    ." 078  .089  J23 

Relative  volume..    .                            ..12.8  6.4  12.8 

Ratio  by  volume 2  cu.  ft.  1  cu.  ft.  2  cu.  ft. 


Since  in  all  practical  cases  of  combustion  the  oxygen  is  taken 
from  the  air  and  is  there  associated  with  nitrogen,  the  latter  is 
always  a  constituent  of  the  products  of  combustion.  That  is, 
with  every  pound  or  cubic  foot  of  oxygen  burned  there  will  be 
thrown  into  the  products  of  said  combustion  *3.32  Ib.  or  *3.77 
cu.  ft.  of  nitrogen  respectively.  The  following  table  is  a  summary 
of  the  results  just  calculated: 

TABLE  1. 


QUANTITY 

REQUIRES 

FORMS 

Gravimct- 
rically 

1  Ib.  C2H4 
1  Ib.  CH4 
1  Ib.  H 
1  Ib.  CO 

V  Ib.  O 
4  Ib.  O 
8  Ib.  O 
i  Ib.  O 

V  Ib.  CO2 
V-  Ib.  CO2 

V  Ib.  CO2 

2  Ib.  H2O 
t  Ib.  H20 
9  Ib.  H2O 

11.38  Ib.  N 
13.28  Ib.  N 
26.56  Ib.  N 
1.9    Ib.  N 

'i=: 

•i  •§ 
> 

1  cu.  ft.  C2H4 
1  cu.  ft,  CH4 
1  cu.  ft.  H 
1  cu.  ft.  CO 

3  cu.  ft.  O 
2  cu.  ft.  O 
.5  cu.  ft.  O 
.5  cu.  ft.  O 

2  cu.  ft.  CO2 
1  cu.  ft.  CO2 

1  cu.  ft.  CO2 

2  cu.  ft.  H2O 
2  cu.  ft.  H2O 
1  cu.  ft.  H2O 

11.31  cu.  ft.  N 
7.54  cu.  ft.  ff 
1.88cu.  ft.  N 
1.88cu.ft.  N 

§  57.    Weight  of  a  mixed  gas. 

The  method  of  calculating  the  weight  per  unit  volume  of  a 
mixed  gas  is  best  illustrated  by  a  numerical  example  based  on  a 
gas  of  the  following  composition: 


H....... 

10 

DPT  cent  hv  volnmp 

CH4. 
C2H4... 
CO  
CO,.  . 

.  .     4. 
....     2. 
20. 
3 

per  cent  by  volume, 
per  cent  by  volume, 
per  cent  by  volume. 

o 

I 

N     . 

60 

looT 

By  multiplying  these  figures  (see  §  52)  by  the  weight  of  1  cu. 
ft.  of  the  respective  constituents  —  see  column  G,  table  3, 
p.  51 — the  weight  of  each  constituent  in  the  100  cu.  ft.  is 
obtained.  Thus: 


*  See  §  77. 


THERMAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CALCULATIONS.  39 

H 10.  X  .0056  -   .056  Ib. 

CH4 4.X. 045   -   .180  Ib. 

CoH4 2.X.078   =   :i561b. 

CO 20.X.078   -1.560  Ib. 

COa.  ; . 3.X. 123  =  .369  Ib. 

O , l.X. 089   =  .089  Ib. 

N 60.X. 078  =4.680  Ib. 

100.  cu.  ft.=7.090lb. 
1.  cu.  ft.  =  .07091b. 

§  58.    Specific  gravity  of  a  mixed  gas. 

To  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  a  mixed  gas,  first  calculate 
the  weight  per  cubic  foot  as  explained  in  the  previous  section. 
Then: 

Weight  per  cu.  ft.  .„  .,        .,,       r 

0X07* = Specific  gravity  with  reference  to  air. 

—  =Specific  gravity  with  reference  to  hydrogen. 
^ 


§  59.    Composition  of  gases  by  weight. 

Gas  analyses  are  almost  invariably  stated  in  percentage  by 
volume,  since  it  is  easier  to  measure  a  gas  than  to  weigh  it.  How- 
ever, it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  know  the  composition  by  weight. 
The  method  of  calculating  this  will  be  illustrated  by  a  numerical 
example  based  on  the  results  of  §  57.  From  these  data  the  gravi- 
metric composition  may  be  easily  calculated  as  follows: 

.056x100  .  , , 

— =-T.-p—    =     0.79  H  per  cent  by  weight. 

2.53  CH4  per  cent  by  weight. 


7.09 

=     2.20  C2H4  per  cent  by  weight. 


7.09 

=  22.00  CO  per  cent  by  weight. 


°369^Q1QO=     5.20  C02  per  cent  by  weight. 
•08X1QO  =     1  .25  O  per  cent  by  weight. 


Since  the  specific  gravity  of  a  gas  with  reference  to  H  is  equal 
to  half  its  molecular  weight  (see  column  D,  table  3)  these  values 
may  also  be  used  to  calculate  the  analysis  by  weight.  Thus: 

*  See  column  G,  table  3,  p.  51. 


40       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Per  cent  by  weight. 
H  .................  10.X  1-     10.      ^°     =0.786 

CH<  ...............  4.X  8=     32.       ^X^P-    »  2.515 

C2H4  ..............  2.X14  =     28.      ?5     =  2.200 

CO  ................  20.X  14=  280. 


C02  ...............  3.X22  =     66.  =5.180 


I**™ 
N  .................  60.X14  =  840.       8410   -66.040 


0  .................  1.X16-     16.  -  1.258 


1272.  99.979  . 

The  slight  discrepancy  between  the  two  methods  is  due  to  the 
fact  that,  for  various  reasons,  the  densities  of  gases  as  deduced 
from  their  chemical  composition  do  not  always  agree  exactly 
with  the  values  found  by  direct  experiment. 

§  60.    Air  required  for  combustion. 

To  determine  the  theoretical  amount  of  air  required  for  com- 
bustion of  producer-gas,  proceed  as  follows:  Multiply  the  values 
given  in  columns  O  or  P  of  table  3  —  depending  upon  whether 
the  results  are  to  be,  and  the  gas  analysis  is,  in  terms  of  weight 
or  of  volume  respectively  —  by  the  percentage  of  the  respective 
combustible  constituents  of  the  gas,  the  sum  of  these  products 
giving  the  desired  value.  Thus: 

H  ..........  10.X  2.39=  23.9 

CH4  ........  4.X  9.56=  38.24 

C2H4  ........  2.X  14.34=  28.68 

CO  .........  20.X  2.39=  47.80 

CO2  .........  3.                 138.62  cu.  ft.  =air  required  for  100  cu.  ft.  gas. 

O  ..........  1.  1.38  cu.  ft.  =air  required  for      1  cu.  ft.  gas. 

N  ..........  .  60. 

100. 

However,  since  this  particular  gas  contains  some  free  O,  the 
amount  of  air  that  must  be  furnished  for  combustion  will  be  de- 
creased by  an  amount  equal  to  the  amount  of  air  that  the  free 
O  represents.  Thus:  1  X  4.782*  =  4.782  cu.  ft.  less  air  than  is 
required  per  100  cu.  ft.  of  gas.  Actual  theoretical  amount  of 
air  required  to  burn  100  cu.  ft.  gas  =  138.62-4.782  =  133.838  cu.  ft. 

*  See  §  77. 


THERMAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CALCULATIONS.  41 

The  actual  amount  of  air  required  for  the  combustion  of  the  gas 
will  be  the  theoretical  amount  plus  the  per  cent  of  air  excess, 

§  61.    Weight  and  volume  of  products  of  combustion. 

The  weight  and  volume  of  the  products  of  combustion  of 
producer-gas  are  calculated  by  means  of  the  factors  given  in 
table  1,  p.  38.  A  volumetric  numerical  case  will  be  worked  out 
with  a  producer-gas  of  the  following  composition: 

H 10.  per  cent  by  volume. 

CH4 4.  per  cent  by  volume. 

C2H4 2.  pe'r  cent  by  volume. 

CO 20.  per  cent  by  volume. 

CO2 3.  per  cent  by  volume. 

O 1 .  per  cent  by  volume. 

N o 60.  per  cent  by  volume. 

100.  per  cent  by  volume. 

C02      H20  N 

VI  -.n  IX    1 10. 

18.8 


[X   1.88 
(X    1 

4 

CH,  . 

4, 

X  2. 

.  8. 

C2H4.. .... ...     2. 

CO  . .  .  20. 


X  7.54 .....  30.16 

X  2 4. 

X  2 4. 

Xll.31 22.62 

X  1 20. 

X  1.88 .  37.60 


CO2 3.  28.          22.  109.18 

0 1. 

N 60. 

100. 

That  is,  in  burning  the  combustible  constituents  of  100  cu.  ft.  of 
gas  of  the  composition  given,  we  would  get  28  cu.  ft.  CO2,  22  cu. 
ft.  H2O  and  109.18  cu.  ft.  N.  These  results  will  be  modified, 
however,  by  the  non-combustible  or  diluent  constituents  of  the 
gas  —  namely,  CO2,  O,  and  N.  Since  in  every  100  cu.  ft.  of  the 
gas  in  question  there  are  3  cu.  ft.  of  C02,  which  go  into  the  pro- 
ducts of  combustion,  the  latter  will  be  augmented  by  that  amount. 
The  1  cu.  ft.  of  O  in  the  gas  will  decrease  the  amount  of  O  and 
associated  N  that  must  be  furnished  by  the  air  for  the  burning 
of  the  combustible  constituents;  i.e.,  there  will  be  3.77  cu.  ft.  of 
N  less  in  the  products  of  combustion  due  to  the  1  cu.  ft.  of  free 
O  in  the  gas.  The  60  cu.  ft.  of  N  in  the  gas  will  simply  increase 
the  products  of  combustion  by  a  corresponding  amount.  The 
corrected  values  are  as  follows: 


42       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER^GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS, 

C02  =28  +  3  =  31  cu.  ft. 

H2O  =  same  as  before,  22  cu,  ft. 

N      =  109.18-3.77  +  60.  =  165.41  cu.  ft. 


The  above  may  be  worked  out  in  a  similar  manner  in  terms  of 
weights  by  means  of  the  gravimetric  factors  in  table  1,  p.  38, 
and  a  gas  analysis  in  per  cents  by  weight.  In  ordinary  practice, 
the  products  of  combustion  will  also  contain  air  due  to  the  air 
excess  used  in  burning  the  gas.  Thus,  if  in  burning  the  gas  for 
which  we  have  just  calculated  the  volumes  of  the  products  of 
combustion  we  use  an  air  excess  of  25  per  cent,  we  will  then  re- 
quire 1.33+  1.33X.25  =  1.66  cu.  ft,  of  air  per  cubic  foot  of  gas 
burned,  and  of  this  quantity  of  air  0.33  cu.  ft.  will  pass  into  the 
products  of  combustion  without  giving  up  its  oxygen. 

The  products  of  combustion  from  burning  1  cu.  ft.  of  this 
gas  with  25  per  cent  air  excess  would  then  contain  0.31  cu.  ft. 
CO2,  0.22  cu.  ft,  H2O,  1.65  cu.  ft.  N,  and  0.33  cu.  ft.  atmospheric 
air. 

§  62.   Heat  carried  away  by  products  of  combustion. 

The  sum  of  the  products  of  the  weights  or  volumes  by  the 
respective  gravimetric  or  volumetric  specific  heats  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  products  of  combustion  will  be  the  amount  of  heat 
carried  away  per  pound  or  cubic  foot  of  the  gas  for  each  degree 
of  temperature  of  the  gases  above  the  atmosphere. 

Thus,  for  the  products  of  combustion  calculated  in  the  pre- 
ceding section: 

A  BCD 

CO2  ...................  Six.  0265  =  .0082 

H2O  ...................  22  X.  01  73  =  .0038 

N  ....................  1.65X.0192  =  .0317 

Air  excess  ..............  33  X.  0191  =  .0063 

.0500 

A  Combustion  product  constituent. 
B  Quantity  of  "  A  "  per  unit  of  gas. 
C  Volumetric  specific  heat,  column  J,  table  3,  p.  51. 
D  Heat  units  per  degree  of  temperature. 

If  the  temperature  of  the  combustion  products  were  300  degrees 
F.,  the  heat  carried  away  by  the  combustion  products  of  1  cu.  ft. 
of  gas  with  25  per  cent  air  excess  would  be  0.05  X  300  =  15.   B.  t.  u. 
§  63.   Sensible  heat  loss  of  producer-gas. 
The  number  of  pounds  or  cubic  feet  of  the  gas  evolved  per 


THERMAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CALCULATIONS.  43 

unit  weight  of  fuel  multiplied  by  the  gravimetric  or  volumetric 
specific  heat  of  the  gas  will  give  the  heat  units  carried  away  as 
sensible  heat  in  the  gas  per  unit  weight  of  fuel,  for  each  degree 
of  temperature  of  the  gas  above  the  atmosphere.  For  calcula- 
tions of  specific  heat,  see  §  52. 

§  64.    Flame  temperature.     (See  App.,  notes  8  and  9.) 

The  resulting  flame  temperature  of  the  combustion  of  any 
substance  is  found  by  dividing  the  number  of  heat  units  evolved, 
by  the  products  of  combustion  multiplied  by  their  respective 
specific  heats.  (See  App.,  note  2.)  Thus  for  producer-gas: 

Heat  units  evolved  per  cu.  ft. 
CO2X.0265  +  H2Ox.0173  +  Nx.0192  = 


However,  since  in  practical  work  there  will  always  be  an  excess 
of  air,  this  must  be  taken  into  account  when  calculating  the 
temperature,  thus* 

Heat  units  evolved  per  cu.  ft. 


The  volume  of  the  products  of  combustion  are  to  be  calculated 
by  the  method  given  in  §  61. 

§  65.    Explosive  mixtures.     (B  163.) 

Since  producer-gas  is  frequently  used  in  gas  engines,  it  will 
be  desirable  to  understand  the  conditions  under  which  explosion 
may  take  place.  "  Any  combustible  gas  will  combine  completely 
with  oxygen,  (1)  when  the  mixture  contains  the  two  gases  in 
the  proper  proportion;  (2)  when  the  temperature  and  pressure 
of  the  mixture  are  within  fixed  limits." 

"  One  cubic  foot  of  hydrogen  requires  half  a  cubic  foot  of  oxy- 
gen for  complete  combustion,  and  the  latter  is  furnished  by  2.4 
cu.  ft.  of  air.  A  mixture  of  hydrogen  with  either  oxygen  or  air 
in  these  proportions  is  termed  explosive,  because  the  combustion 
when  once  started  spreads  with  so  great  rapidity  throughout 
the  whole  mixture  as  to  be  called  an  explosion.  "  Explosive 
mixtures  cease  to  be  inflammable,  (1)  when  there  is  a  certain 
excess  either  of  the  gases,  or  of  an  inert  gas  present,  and  (2)  by 
a  reduction  of  pressure.  Table  2  gives  the  explosive  mixtures 
for  several  gases: 


44       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

TABLE  2. 


COMBUSTIBLE   GAS 

EXPLOSIVE   MIXTURE 
AIR  TO    1    VOL.   GAS 

Hydrogen             

.  2.4 

Carbon  monoxide  

2.4 

Marsh  gas 

96 

Olefiant  gas 

14.4 

Acetylene       .    .             

12. 

Coal  gas  

5.7 

§  66.   Calculation  of  moisture  in  air. 

The  amount  of  moisture  or  water  vapor  carried  or  held  by  air 
depends  on  the  degree  of  saturation  of  the  latter.  Table  11, 
p.  267,  gives  the  weights  of  vapor  in  pounds  for  1  cubic  foot  of 
saturated  air  at  different  temperatures.  Table  12,  p.  268,  gives 
the  relative  humidity  of  air;  for  definitions  see  §§  7,  8,  9,  and  10. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  vapor  in  air,  multiply  the  values 
given  in  column  F  of  table  11,  p.  267,  by  the  relative  humidity, 
found  from  table  12,  for  the  corresponding  temperature,  and 
the  result  will  be  the  weight  in  pounds  of  the  moisture  in  1  cubic 
foot  of  air  or  gas,  at  the  given  temperature. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COMMERCIAL   GASES. 

§  67.    Definition  of  commercial  gas. 

A  commercial  gas  is  not  a  definite  compound  and  is  always 
made  up  of  a  plurality  of  constituents,  the  number  of  the  con- 
stituents and  their  proportion  being  dependent  upon  the  method 
of  manufacture  and  the  nature  of  the  raw  fuel.  Table  3,  p.  51, 
gives  the  properties  of  these  constituents,  the  object  of  this 
chapter  being  to  show  their  general  effect  upon  the  various  com- 
mercial gases  and  especially  upon  producer-gas;  by  co-ordinating 
these  in  their  proper  relation  to  one  another,  we  thereby  secure 
a  basis  for  the  extensive  discussion  of  producer-gas  in  the  follow- 
ing chapters. 

§  68.    Hydrogen. 

This  is  colorless,  odorless,  non-poisonous,  and  the  lightest 
known  substance.  The  effect  of  hydrogen  in  a  commercial  gas 
is  to  make  it  lighter,  to  increase  the  heating  value,  the  amount 
of  air  required  for  combustion,  and  the  heat  loss  in  the  products 
of  combustion.  It  is  very  combustible,  and  hydrogen  uniting 
with  oxygen  burns  with  a  pale  blue  nearly  non-luminous  flame, 
producing  water  in  the  form  of  water  vapor.  The  reaction  is  as 
follows  : 


In  the  gas-producer  it  is  formed  as  follows: 


Hydrogen  is  always  a  desirable  constituent  of  a  commercial 
gas  on  account  of  its  high  calorific  power  and  its  avidity  for  com- 
bustion; however,  as  it  will  not  stand  much  compression  without 
danger  of  self-ignition,  the  amount  that  may  be  present  in  pro- 
ducer-gas, when  the  latter  is  to  be  successfully  used  in  a  gas 
engine,  is  limited. 

45 


46       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  69.    Marsh  gas. 

It  is  sometimes  called  methane,  and  is  the  main  constituent 
of  natural  gas  and  "fire-damp"  in  coal  mines.  It  has  a  high 
calorific  power,  is  colorless,  slightly  soluble  in  water,  odorless, 
and  burns  readily  with  a  slightly  luminous  flame.  However, 
the  rate  of  combustion  is  much  slower  than  that  of  hydrogen 
or  carbonic  oxide,  which  makes  it  a  very  desirable  constituent 
of  producer-gas,  especially  when  the  latter  is  to  be  used  in  gas 
engines,  as  the  presence  of  marsh  gas  decreases  the  danger  of 
back-firing  and  pre-ignition  by  retarding  the  rate  of  combustion. 
It  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  under 
restricted  access  of  oxygen.  It  is  also  one  of  the  products  of 
the  destructive  distillation  of  coal.  When  it  burns,  the  follow- 
ing reaction  takes  place: 


§  70.   Olefiant  gas. 

This  is  sometimes  called  ethylene  or  ethene,  and  is  the  main 
illuminating  constituent  of  coal  gas.  It  is  evolved  when  oil  or 
coal  is  heated.  It  has  a  very  high  calorific  p'ower,  is  odorless, 
colorless,  and  burns  with  a  highly  luminous  flame,  having  four- 
teen times  the  luminosity  of  marsh  gas.  On  complete  combus- 
tion, the  following  reaction  takes  place: 

C2H4  +  6O  =  2CO2  +  2H20 
§  71.    Carbonic  oxide. 

This  is  also  known  as  carbon  monoxide  and  is  one  of  the  most 
important  constituents  of  producer-gas.  It  is  odorless,  color- 
less, practically  insoluble  in  water,  very  poisonous  (see  §  339), 
and  burns  with  a  distinctive  pale  blue  flame,  The  reaction  is 
as  follows: 


It  is  formed  by  bringing  carbon  dioxide  in  contact  with  incan- 
descent carbon,  the  reaction  being  exothermic  and  taking  place 
as  follows: 


§  72.    Carbon   dioxide. 

It  is  also  called  carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  anhydride.     It  is 
colorless,  odorless,  soluble  in  water  (see  table  20,  p.  275),  non- 


COMMERCIAL  GASES.  47 

combustible,  and  is  formed  by  the  complete  combustion  of  car- 
bon and  oxygen  at  high  temperature.     Thus: 


For  an  extended  discussion  of  the  effects  of  carbon  dioxide  on 
producer-gas,  see  Chapter  9. 

§  73.    Oxygen. 

This  is  tasteless,  odorless,  invisible,  and  slightly  heavier  than 
air.  Its  presence  in  a  fuel  gas  is  indicative  either  of  leakage 
after  the  gas  has  been  cooled  or  of  improper  action  in  the  gas- 
producer,  since  it  could  not  pass  through  a  gas-producer  in  normal 
condition  without  combining  with  the  combustible  gas. 

§  74.    Nitrogen. 

This  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  non-combustible  gas  and  is  always 
present  in  large  quantity  in  gases  produced  by  incomplete  com- 
bustion, as  in  producer-gas,  for  instance.  It  has  no  influence 
except  to  act  as  a  diluent.  It  forms  four-fifths  of  the  volume  of 
air. 

§  75.    Hydrocarbons. 

The  number  of  known  hydrocarbons  is  nearly  two  hundred. 
The  term  is  applied  to  all  compounds  consisting  only  of  hydro- 
gen and  carbon.  These  compounds  exist  in  gaseous,  vaporous, 
liquid,  and  solid  states.  Their  character  depends  in  a  large 
measure  on  the  temperature  at  which  the  reactions  take  place. 
Low  temperatures  are  conducive  to  the  formation  of  the  easily 
condensed  tarry  compounds,  while  with  high.  temperatures  the 
yield  of  hydrogen  and  permanent  gases  is  greatly  increased. 
(See.§  106,  and  Chapter  23.) 

§  76.    Water  vapor. 

As  the  vaporization  of  the  moisture  in,  and  the  destructive 
distillation  of,  the  fuel  always  produce  steam  or  water  vapor, 
it  is  nearly  always  found  in  producer-gas.  Above  the  boiling 
point  corresponding  to  the  pressure  of  the  gas,  all  the  water  will 
be  in  the  vaporous  state;  below  this  point,  part  of  the  steam 
will  condense,  but  a  certain  amount  of  water  will  always  remain 
in  the  gas.  Water  vapor,  on  account  of  its  high  specific  heat,  may 
cause  a  large  heat  loss  in  the  products  of  combustion.  For  the 
determination  of  the  amount  of  water  vapor  in  a  gas,  see  §  331. 


48       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§77.    Air. 

This  consists  of  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  with  very 
small  quantities  of  other  substances,  such  as  argon,  ammonia, 
carbon  dioxide,  and  water  vapor,  the  amount  of  the  latter  depend- 
ing upon  the  temperature  and  relative  humidity  of  the  atmos- 
phere. The  method  of  calculating  this  will  be  found  in  §  66. 
The  amounts  of  argon,  ammonia,  and  carbon  dioxide  are  so  small 
that  they  need  never  be  considered. 

Pure  dry  air  is  composed  of  20.91  parts  0  and  79.09  parts  N 
by  volume,  or  23.15  parts  O  and  76.85  parts  N  by  weight. 

Ratio  of  N  toO: 

By  volume,   |j|p3.77.     By  weight,  |j|f  =  3.32 
Ratio  of  air  to  O: 

1 QQ  i nn 

By  volume,   ^j  =  4-78.     By  weight,  ^^  =  4.315 
Ratio  of  air  to  N: 

By   volume,  J55L-1.265.     By  weight,  ^  =  1.302 

§  78.   Illuminants. 

In  a  gas  analysis,  part  of  the  constituents  are  sometimes  men- 
tioned as  "  illuminants,"  the  term  "illuminant"  meaning  a  sub- 
stance that  makes  the  gas  flame  luminous,  and  olefiant  gas  is 
sometimes  included  with  this.  The  percentage  present  in  producer- 
gas  is  usually  very  small. 

§  79.   Natural  gas. 

Natural  gas  is  made  by  a  secret  process  of  nature,  the  principal 
constituent  being  marsh  gas  and  the  exact  composition  varying 
considerably  with  the  different  districts.  While  an  ideal  fuel, 
it  is  commercially  available  in  only  a  few  localities,  and  even 
there  the  uncertainty  of  the  continuity  of  the  supply  makes  its 
use  uncertain. 

§80.   Oil  gas. 

This  is  made  from  oil,  generally  by  allowing  the  liquid  to  flow 
slowly  and  in  a  thin,  continuous  stream  through  a  highly  heated 
pipe  or  retort,  where  the  oil  is  vaporized.  This  usually  evolves 
hydrogen,  marsh  gas,  and  olefiant  gas  mixed  with  vapor,  which 
will  usually  be  condensed  in  the  scrubbing  apparatus. 


COMMERCIAL  GASES.  49 

§  81.    Coal  gas. 

It  is  also  called  "bench"  or  "illuminating"  gas;  the  former 
refers  to  the  benches  which  hold  the  retorts,  while  the  latter  is 
dubious,  since  several  other  gases  are  distributed  as  illuminating 
gas.  Coal  gas  is  made  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  in  externally  heated,  air-tight  retorts.  The  resulting 
gas  is  withdrawn  by  an  exhauster  and  the  residual  coke  is  re- 
moved periodically. 

§  82.    Coke-oven  gas. 

This  is  a  gas  made  in  a  by-product  coke  oven;  that  is,  the  gas, 
tar,  and  ammonia  evolved  by  distilling  coal  in  a  closed  oven  are 
saved  and  used  as  a  by-product.  Its  composition  is  quite  similar 
to  coal  gas.  (See  Chapter  19.) 

§  83.    Water  gas. 

This  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  steam  when  the  steam 
acts  on  incandescent  carbon.  This  reaction  is  discussed  in  de- 
tail in  §  117.  As  this  reaction  is  endothermic  (see  §  34),  the  tem- 
perature of  the  carbon  will  soon  be  reduced  to  a  point  where 
the  reaction  cannot  take  place,  and  it  will  then  become  necessary 
to  store  more  heat  in  the  carbon.  This  is  almost  universally 
done  by  shutting  off  the  steam  and  blowing  the  carbon  with  air, 
thus  bringing  it  back  to  incandescence  and  making  it  ready  for 
the  next  steaming:  this  makes  the  system  intermittent.  On 
account  of  the  large  amount  of  carbon  monoxide  present,  the  gas 
is  very  poisonous.  (See  §  339.) 

§  84.    Carbureted  water  gas. 

To  change  the  blue  flame  of  water  gas  to  one  that  will  be  lu- 
minous, various  methods  are  in  use  for  injecting  hydrocarbons  — 
as  naphtha  or  oil  —  into  the  gas  and  making  it  luminous.  The 
resulting  mixture  is  known  as  carbureted  water  gas;  a  large 
portion  of  the  illuminating  gas  sold  in  this  country  is  carbureted 
water  gas. 

§  85.    Comparison  of  the  commercial  gases. 

The  relative  properties  of  the  several  commercial  gases  de- 
scribed, and  the  relation  that  these  sustain  to  producer-gas,  is 
shown  in  table  4,  p.  50,  which  was  compiled  by  Gow.  This  also 
shows  the  relation  that  blast-furnace  gas  sustains  to  the  other 
commercial  gases.  The  blast  furnace  is  a  huge  gas-producer, 
and  the  resulting  gas  is  very  closely  allied  to  producer-gas. 


50       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§86.    Tabulated  data. 

Table  3  gives  a  summary  of  the  properties  and  data  on  the 
combustion  of  the  constituents  of  commercial  gases.     The  values 

TABLE  4. 

COMMERCIAL   GASES. 


Names 

H 

CH, 

CzKU 

N 

CO 

0 

CO2 

B.  t.  u. 
in  1  cu. 
ft.  ex- 
plosive 
mixture 

B.  t.  u. 
cu.  ft. 

Ore- 
quired 
for  com- 
bustion 

Air  for 
combus- 
tion 

Natural  gas  (Pitts- 

burg) 

3.0 

92.0 

3.0 

2.0 

91.0 

978. 

1.94 

9.73 

Oil  gas 

32.0 

48.0 

16.5 

3.0 

0.5 

93.0 

846. 

1.61 

8.07 

Coal  or  bench  gas 

46.0 

40.0 

5.0 

2.0 

6.0 

0.5 

0.5 

91.7 

646. 

1.21 

6.05 

Coke-oven  gas 

50.0 

36.0 

4.0 

2.0 

6.0 

0.5 

1.5 

91.0 

603. 

1.12 

5.60 

Carbureted    water 

gas 

40.0 

25.0 

8.5 

4.0 

19.0 

0.5 

3.0 

92.0 

575. 

1.05 

5.25 

Water  gas 

48.0 

2.0 

5.5 

38.0 

0.5 

6.0 

88.0 

295. 

0.47 

2.35 

Producer-gas  from 

hard  coal 

20.0 

49.5 

25.0 

0.5 

5.0 

68.0 

144. 

0.22 

1.12 

Producer-gas  from 

soft  coal 

10.0 

3.0 

0.5 

58.0 

23.0 

0.5 

5.0 

65.5 

144. 

0.24 

1.20 

Producer-gas  from 

coke 

10.0 

56.0 

29.0 

0.5 

4.5 

63.0 

125. 

0.19 

0.98 

Blast-furnace  gas 

1.0| 

60.0 

27.5J      |11.5 

91. 

.143 

.72 

given  in  column  E  are  only  approximate,  but  are  close  enough 
for  all  engineering  calculations.  The  exact  values  are  as  follows: 
H.  =  l;  CH<  =  7.99;  C2H4  =  13.97;  CO  =  13.97;  N  =  14.01;  O  =  15.96; 
CO2  =  21.95.  Columns  F,  G.  and  I  are  taken  from  the  Smith- 
sonian Physical  Tables. 

-5 


K  is  calculated  by  the  method  given  in  § 


M  and  N  are  calculated  by  the  method  given  in  §  56. 

0  =  4.32XM.     (See  §60.) 
P  =  4.782  XN.     (See  §60.) 

Q.  These  values  have  been  determined  by  various  experimenters. 


. 

S  is  taken  from  Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels. 


COMMERCIAL  GASES. 


51 


TABLE  3. 

CONSTITUENTS  OF  COMMERCIAL  GASES. 

COMBUSTION  DATA 

•  ;|  t  if 

§            EH 
i 

(N  -f- 

0          OO   „ 

Sp^tlg 

3-1  QO    "  QO 

Kooodo 

NOTE.  All  calculations  with  the  exception 
of  those  for  steam  are  made  on  a  basis  of 
32°  F.  and  29.92  in. 

i 

d, 
co" 

(M 

-3n 

3 

c3 

.^ 

3 

3 

<U 
^3 

1 

1 
o 

a 
t—  i 

O'd  uop 
-snquioo  jo  ajn^jaduia;  Sui^nsajj  u 

CO  C^  Oi  CO  O  O 

^^  O5  CO  CO  O  O 
00  00  CO  O  ^  Tf 

•*  Tf  (M  Tt"  IO  IO 

i  S 

y  jo  'ij  -no  i  p3 

CO             00<N 

^H                    t^-  !>•  "^ 

CO              O  CO  CO 

vj°-qi  T  o> 

BO  O  CO  CO  »O 
o  10  1^  t^.  oo 

1 

y  jo  '^j  'no  i   PH 

<N            oi  T^  CN 

V  J°  'qi  T  O 

CO  <M  CO  00        l> 

to  10  i>  oq  oo  TF 

Tj5  l-H  IO  t>I  T^  (>] 
CO  rH          r-  1  ,—  1 

|||l 

y  jo  -^j  -no  i  fr 

»o         oo  »o 
c<i  co 

y  jo  -q|  i  ^ 

eNLi!__  co"'*'1' 

PROPERTIES 

sisS  jo  -^j  -no  x  ui  uoqa^o  jo  spunoj  ^ 

CO  COCO 
CO  CO  CO 

o  o  o 

1 

s'eS  jo  -qj  i  ui  uoqa^o  jo  spunoj  & 

«H.»^«k, 

* 

B 

c/3 

•^j  'no  jaj  i-s 

^              "^  O^  CO 
O5             CO  00  Oi 

o  o  o  o  o 

•qi  ^d  * 

^f             >O  CO  (N 

QO  rti  T-H  ,—  i  co 

-*1  <N  (M  C^l  cq 

CO                        '      ' 

*qj  Jad  '^j  'n^)  ^ 

gj          nj  oq  oq 

"-H                      (M    l-H   l-l 

^OJ  rH  00  C^ 

•qi  ui  'ij  -no  J8d  ^qSia^  o 

LO              iO  00  00 

CO  00  C75  CO  O 

g^g^g 

fi- 
ll 

I  =  HIV  fe 

§iO  CO  CO 
IO  Oi  C5 

O5  (N  »O  O5  O 
CO  t^O(M  O 

"t1  O5  I-H  IO  O 

—  —  — 

T=H  W 

l—  1                    00  Tt<  TjH 

Oi  ^  CO  (N 

iqSwAY  JTSjnoaioj^  Q 

(M  ^  -^  CO  00  00 

<N  <N  rH  (N  <M 

2c5^^ 

^uSiaM  oiuio^y  Q 

T-I  (M  (N 
1—  1  I—  1 

Tt<  CO 

1—  1   i-H 

|oqra^g  ffl 

Soood'8 

£^08 

!         ' 

Hydrogen 
Carbon 
Carbon 
Marsh  gas 
Olefiant  gas 
Carbon  monoxide 

N              ^ 
N             1 

^    CH          *^ 
'  "**    ^  **    *" 

Q  ^Oo<3 

^uannQ 

CHAPTER  V. 

STATUS    OF    PRODUCER-GAS. 

§  87.   Progress  made. 

The  first  work  for  which  gas-producers  were  used  was  the  firing 
of  furnaces  for  the  manufacture  of  iron,  and  even  to-day  this  is 
still  a  large  field  of  application.  The  producers  shown  in  Fig. 
22-46  are  largely  used  for  such  work  in  this  country.  With- 
out the  gas-producer,  the  iron  and  steel  industry  could  never 
have  reached  the  magnitude  that  it  has  in  this  country,  and  the 
successful  commercial  gasification  of  the  cheaper  fuels  has  done 
more  to  develop  the  quality  and  to  reduce  the  cost  of  manufac- 
ture than  any  other  factor. 

Many  engineers  are  beginning  to  appreciate  the  superior  advan- 
tages of  producer-gas  as  a  fuel,  and  it  is  now  recognized  by  pro- 
gressive manufacturers  as  one  of  the  foremost  means  of  effecting 
a  saving  in  the  cost  of  production.  An  improvement  in  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  the  manufactured  article  is  the  result 
of  its  use,  and  it  is  now  being  introduced  in  many  of  our  indus- 
trial establishments.  However,  any  one  familiar  with  the  merits 
of  producer-gas  must  admit  that  it  has  not  received  the  recogni- 
tion that  it  deserves  —  especially  in  America.  It  has  many 
advantages  over  solid  fuel,  both  in  efficiency  and  economy. 
That  there  are  certain  disadvantages  attending  the  use  of  gaseous 
fuel  must  be  admitted,  but  they  are  so  few  and  unimportant  that 
they  cannot  militate  against  the  many  advantages. 

The  limited  and  restricted  development  of  the  producer-gas 
industry  in  America  is  due  to  three  factors:  first,  ignorance  of  the 
subject;  second,  an  abundant  fuel  supply  which  has  not  made 
a  high  fuel  economy  imperative;  third,  the  want  of  adaptability 
of  producers  for  the  work  that  they  are  expected  to  do. 
§  88.  Ignorance. 

While  the  number  of  patents  which  have  been  taken  out  on 
gas-producers  and  producer-gas  processes  is  very  large,  many  of 

52 


STATUS  OF  PRODUCER-GAS.  53 

the  patentees  have  shown  an  unusual  lack  of  originality  in  the 
principles  upon  which  gas  production  is  based.  Many  inventors 
seem  to  be  satisfied  by  merely  modifying  details  of  forms  already 
in  use;  very  few  have  gone  back  to  the  physical  and  chemical 
laws  upon  which  gas  production  is  based  and,  after  studying  the 
nature  of  the  various  operations,  have  considered  how  these 
could  be  applied.  In  some  cases,  recent  patents  use  only  copies 
of  old  ideas  that  had  been  tried  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago. 

The  various  text-books  on  Metallurgy,  Fuel,  Applied  Chemistry, 
and  allied  subjects  have  given  very  little  attention  to  producer- 
gas,  and  some  of  the  books  that  have  referred  to  it  have  shown 
a  marked  absence  of  care,  thought,  and  original  research  on  the 
part  of  the  authors.  Heretofore  the  subject  has  not  been  treated 
as  a  whole  in  this  country,  and  it  surely  has  not  received  the 
attention  that  its  magnitude  and  importance  deserve.  However, 
its  literature  is  quite  extensive,  as  is  shown  by  the  bibliographical 
reference  list  given  in  Chapter  30.  The  chronological  arrange- 
ment of  the  list  is  interesting  in  that  it  shows  the  growth  of 
interest  in  the  subject  from  year  to  year. 

Inasmuch  as  these  references  are  distributed  through  a  large 
number  of  periodicals  and  books,  covering  a  range  of  sixty- 
four  years,  the  scattered  data  contained  therein  have  not  been 
generally  available.  One  of  the  most  potent  means  of  interest- 
ing engineers,  manufacturers,  and  others  in  the  advantages  of 
producer-gas  and  of  increasing  its  use  will  be  the  dissemination 
of  conservative,  comprehensive,  analytical,  and  authentic  data 
on  the  producer-gas  industry. 

§  89.    Fuel  supply.     (B  107,  B  114,  B  118,  B  130.) 

One  of  the  most  serious  problems  of  the  near  future  will  be 
that  of  fuel  supply.  We  are  even  now  returning  to  mines  that 
were  abandoned  several  years  ago  and  are  beginning  to  rework 
them  with  an  economy  unknown  before;  and  coal  seams,  formerly 
regarded  as  being  too  thin  or  too  poor  to  work,  are  being  investi- 
gated and  purchased  in  large  areas.  Brown  coal,  lignite,  peat, 
sawdust,  and  other  refuse  are  now  being  used  in  European  gas- 
producers,  and  these  low-grade  fuels  must  soon  be  used  exten- 
sively in  this  country.  While  natural  gas  is  now  piped  long 
distances  and  utilized  in  manufacturing  industries  where  the  use 
of  a  gaseous  fuel  is  imperative,  yet  the  states  that  have  gas  wells 


54       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

will  soon  enact  laws  that  will  prevent  piping  the  gas  outside 
the  state  or  using  it  for  anything  except  domestic  service. 

On  account  of  its  high  fuel  economy,  producer-gas  will  be  one 
of  the  best  means  of  curtailing  the  useless  waste  of  fuel,  utilizing 
low-grade  fuels,  and  presenting  a  substitute  for  natural  gas. 

§  90.   Inadaptability. 

On  the  other  hand,  no  gas-producer  can  be  a  panacea  for  all 
metallurgical  ills.  The  attempt  to  design  the  so-called  universal 
producers  has  always  been  followed  by  ignominious  failure. 
There  is  no  "best"  form  of  producer  for  all  purposes.  In  order 
that  a  producer  shall  be  successful,  it  must  be  adapted  to  the 
particular  work  it  has  to  do.  A  producer  admirably  suited  for 
supplying  a  steel  furnace  may  be  entirely  unfit  for  firing  a  steam 
boiler  or  for  furnishing  gas  to  a  gas  engine.  Hence,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  design  a  gas  plant  that  will  be  equally  serviceable  under 
all  conditions. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Gas-producers  may  be  classified  from  seven  different  points 
of  view,  as  follows: 

§  91.    Method  of  operation. 

(1)  Externally   heated,   air-tight   retorts,   for  the   destructive 
distillation  of  bituminous  coal;  the  resulting  gas  is  withdrawn 
from  the  retort  by  an  exhauster,  below  atmospheric  pressure; 
the  residual  coke  is  removed  periodically.     This  is  the  ordinary 
form  of  by-product  coke  oven. 

(2)  Producers  in  which  coal  is  consumed  or  converted  into 
gas  by  combustion  with  air;  the  hydrocarbons  are  distilled  by 
the  heat  of  the  underlying  fuel;  the  residual  coke  is  first  burned 
to  CO2,  which  is  then  reduced  to  CO  by  contact  with  the  incan- 
descent carbon.     This  is  the  simple  form  of  the  Siemens  producer, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  18. 

(3)  Producers   in  which  the   same  result  is  reached,  with  a 
modification  in  the  composition  of  the  resulting  gas,  due  to  ther 
introduction  of  steam  with  the  air  supply.     This  is  the  usual 
form  of  producer. 

(4)  Producers  in  which  incandescent  fuel  is  used  to  decom- 
pose steam,  either  continuously  by  means  of  externally  heated 
retorts,  or  intermittently  by  the  use  of  regenerating  chambers, 
in  which  the  carbon  is  first  made  incandescent  by  an  air-blast, 
and  through  which  steam  is  then  passed,  the  air-blast  being  shut 
off.     This  is  the  form  of  the  ordinary  water-gas  producer. 

§  92.    Method  of  supporting  fuel. 

(1)  Solid  bottom  producers,   in  which  the  fuel  rests  on  the 
bottom  of  the  producer,  as  in  Fig.  15. 

(2)  Water-seal  producers,  in  which  the  ashes  are  received  in  a 
trough  of  water,  as  in  Fig.  44. 

(3)  Bar-bottom   producers,  in  which  the  fuel   rests  on  grate 
bars,  as  in  Fig.  41. 

55 


56       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

(4)    Revolving   bottom   producers,    to   facilitate   the   removal 
of  the  ashes  and  clinkers,  as  in  Fig.  34. 

§  93.  Place  of  removing  gases. 

(1)  Top  of  producer,  which  is  the  usual  way, 

(2)  Between  top  and  bottom  of  fuel  bed. 

(3)  Bottom  of  producer,  as  shown  in  Fig.  47. 

§  94.  Means  of  agitating  fuel. 

(1)  Hand   poking,   the  usual  way. 

(2)  Mechanical  poking,  as  shown  in  Fig.  42. 

(3)  Moving  grate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

§  95.  Nature  of  draft. 

(1)  Natural  draft,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18. 

(2)  Forced  draft,  which  is  the  usual  way. 

(3)  Induced  draft. 

(a)  Draft  induced  by  an  exhauster,  as  in  the  Loomis  pro- 
ducer, Fig.  47. 

(b)  Draft  induced  by  the  gas-engine  piston,  as  in  the  suc- 
tion type  of  producer. 

§  96.    Direction  of  blast. 

(1)  Vertical,  as  in  Fig.  37. 

(2)  Lateral,  as  in  Fig.  50, 

(3)  Downward,  as  in  the  inverted  combustion  or  down-draft 
type. 

§  97.  Continuity  of  operation. 

(1)  Continuous,  as  in  the  ordinary  type. 

(2)  Intermittent,  as  in  the  Loomis,  Fig.  47. 

(3)  Self-adjusting. 

(a)    Varying  with  the  rate  of  gas  consumption,  as  in  the 

ordinary  suction  type. 
(6)   Maintaining  a  fixed  supply  of  gas,  as  in  the  Wile,  Fig.  48. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    MANUFACTURE   AND    USE    OF    PRODUCER-GAS. 
(B  214.) 

§  98.    Nature  of  producer-gas. 

Producer-gas  is  the  product  of  an  incomplete  combustion  in 
the  gas-producer.  In  this  respect  it  differs  from  ordinary  retort 
or  coal  gas,  in  that  the  whole  of  the  combustible  part  of  the  fuel 
is  gasified.  No  combustible  residue  or  coke  is  left,  and  the  heat 
required  for  the  gasification  is  obtained  in  the  interior  of  the 
producer  by  the  combustion  there  of  a  portion  of  the  charge  of 
solid  fuel  which  is  being  gasified.  Hence,  there  will  always  be  a 
necessary  loss  in  the  producer  itself,  and  therefore  the  advan- 
tages of  producer-gas  are  to  be  sought  in  the  greater  convenience 
and  economy  of  its  use  and  manipulation. 

Producer-gas  may  also  be  defined  as  "  the  generic  name  for  the 
gas  resulting  from  the  comparatively  slow  resolution  of  solid 
fuel  by  means  of  the  heat  derived  by  a  partial  combustion  of  the 
fuel  itself,  the  exact  composition  of  the  gas  being  dependent  upon 
the  nature  of  the  fuel,  the  arrangement  and  the  method  of  operat- 
ing the  producer."  (B  39.) 

The  terms  "Riche  gas,"  "Mond  gas,"  "  Loomis  gas,"  "Sie- 
mens gas,"  or  "Dowson  gas"  are  misleading,  as  the  gas  is 
virtually  the  same  in  all  these  instances,  and  is  simply  made 
in  producers  bearing  the  respective  names.  However,  the  exact 
proportion  of  the  different  elements  and  compounds  present  in 
the  gas  will  depend  on  the  type  of  producer  and  the  nature  of 
fuel  used  in  making  the  gas. 

§  99.   Simple  producer-gas. 

The  simplest  form  of  gas-producer  is  the  Siemens,  which  is 
shown  in  Fig.  18.  In  order  to  make  the  demonstration  simple, 
it  may  be  assumed  that  coke  or  charcoal  is  the  fuel  used  in  the 
producer  under  discussion.  The  oxygen  of  the  air,  entering  the 
producer  and  passing  up  through  the  grates,  comes  into  contact 

57 


58       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

with  the  carbon.     As  this  is  in  excess  and  the  temperature  high, 
carbon  monoxide  only  should  be  formed  as  follows: 

c+o=co 

However,  some  carbon  dioxide  may  be  formed  as  follows: 


The  heat  generated  by  this  reaction  is  taken  up  by  the  CO2 
and  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  supplied.  As  the  carbon  dioxide  is 
at  a  very  high  temperature,  it  ascends  and  thus  brings  the  fuel 
above  it  to  incandescence.  In  contact  with  this  glowing  carbon, 
the  CO2  should  be  instantly  decomposed  into  CO. 

CO,+C=2CO. 

If  the  air  supplied  to  the  producer  is  dry  and  the  decomposi- 
tion complete,  the  resulting  gas  will  consist  of  a  mixture  of  car- 
bon monoxide  and  nitrogen,  and  is  called  simple  producer-gas 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  gas  enriched  by  hydrogen  and  hydro- 
carbons. 

§  100.   Steam-enriched  gas. 

Since  dry  air  is  not  usually  available,  and  coke  and  charcoal 
are  generally  too  expensive  for  fuels,  the  use  of  steam  with  the 
air  blast  is  imperative  to  secure  a  proper  operation  of  the  pro- 
ducer; and  as  a  higher  heating  value  is  required  than  can  be 
secured  with  simple  producer-gas,  the  latter  is  used  very  little  in 
practice.  Producer-gas  is  almost  universally  enriched  by  the 
use  of  steam;  the  action  of  this  is  of  vital  importance  and  is  dis- 
cussed in  detail  in  Chapter  8. 

§  101.    The  action  in  the  producer.     (B  42,  B  74,  B  77.) 

For  the  proper  understanding  of  the  action  of  a  gas-producer, 
it  is  desirable  to  divide  it  into  four  zones,  the  relative  posit'ion  of 
these  being  given  in  Fig.  2.  However,  the  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  respective  zones  is  not  very  distinct  in  practice. 

§  102.    Ash  zone. 

The  primary  object  of  the  ash  zone  is  to  keep  the  intense  heat 
developed  by  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  away  from  the  grate, 
and  thus  prevent  it  from  "burning  out."  The  ash  zone  is  theo- 
retically of  little  importance;  however,  it  has  some  practical 
value  in  that  it  heats  the  air  and  steam  before  they  go  to  the 


THE  MANUFACTURE  AND  USE  OF  PRODUCER-GAS,    59 

combustion   zone.     As   the   ashes  accumulate,   the   thickness   of 
the  fuel  bed  must  be  increased  to  make  room  enough  for  the 


FIG.  2.  —  ZONES  OF  A  GAS-PRODUCER. 

combustion  zone;  failure  to  recognize  this  will  result  in  excess 
C02  and  undecomposed  steam  in  the  gas. 


60       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  103.    Combustion  zone. 

In  this  zone  the  air  and  steam  meet  the  carbon,  the  oxygen 
uniting  with  the  incandescent  C  to  form  CO2,  while  the  steam  is 
superheated  and  possibly  begins  to  decompose. 

§  104.    Decomposition  zone. 

This  is  where  CO  is  generated,  the  steam  decomposed  into  H, 
and  the  CO2  reduced  to  CO.  A  large  amount  of  heat  will  be 
absorbed  in  this  zone  to  compensate  for  the  carbonization  of  CO2 
and  the  decomposition  of  the  steam;  in  order  that  the  reactions 
may  take  place,  the  temperature  nust  be  kept  above  1800  de- 
grees F. 

§  105.    Distillation  zone. 

This  occupies  the  upper  part  of  the  fire.  The  addition  of  fresh 
fuel  always  lowers  the  temperature,  but  the  heat  from  the  lower 
zones  distils  the  volatile  constituents  of  the  fresh  fuel.  The 
nature  of  the  hydrocarbons  will  depend  upon  the  temperature. 
If  the  temperature  is  kept  high,  the  hydrocarbons  will  be  easily 
broken  up,  and  the  hydrogen  liberated.  This  means  a  large 
yield  of  permanent  gases  and  very  little  tar  and  soot.  If  the 
temperature  is  kept  low,  the  hydrocarbons  will  be  easily  con- 
densed and  the  amount  of  tar  and  soot  will  be  greatly  increased. 
For  the  complete  distillation  of  the  coal,  a  long  exposure  to  a  high 
temperature  is  necessary  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  coke  into 
large  masses  which  are  broken  up  with  difficulty. 

§  106.      Hydrocarbons. 

Blauvelt  and  Taylor  have  argued  that  the  unstable  hydro- 
carbons enhance  the  value  of  the  gas  for  heating  purposes, 
while  Campbell  (B  66)  argued  against  most  of  their  statements. 
The  discussion  is  summarized  in  the  following:  While  it  must 
be  admitted  that  the  hydrocarbons  contribute  to  the  heating 
value  of  the  gas,  yet  the  actual  value  of  these  has  been  greatly 
overestimated.  They  are  so  unstable  and  uncertain  in  their 
reactions  at  varying  temperatures  —  and  generally  it  is  not 
possible  to  keep  the  temperature  fluctuation  within  the  required 
range  that  will  not  affect  these  reactions  —  that  they  usually 
cause  more  trouble  than  they  are  worth.  In  general,  the  best 
way  is  to  have  the  temperature  of  the  distillation  zone  high 
enough  to  distil  all  the  hydrocarbons  and  then  pass  them 
through  an  incandescent  mass  of  carbon.  (See  §  269.) 


THE  MANUFACTURE  AND  USE  OF  PRODUCER-GAS.       61 

§  107.    Condition  of  fire.     (B  66.) 

"A  hot,  deep  fire  will  best  promote  the  desired  reactions,  but 
even  with  a  bed  of  incandescent  coke  ten  feet  in  depth,  the  escap- 
ing gases  will  contain  some  CO2.  In  practice,  the  depth  of  fire 
cannot  be  much  over  six  feet.  If  deeper,  it  is  found  that,  no 
matter  how  thoroughly  the  upper  surface  may  be  stirred,  the 
lower  part  of  the  fire  is  not  thoroughly  broken  up  by  the  poking 
and  the  zone  of  combustion  becomes  honeycombed  with  large 
cavities,  affording  passage  for  undecomposed  steam  and  air. 
This  condition  is  most  marked  along  the  walls,  and  the  intense 
heat  produced  on  the  interior  surfaces  of  these  coke  chimneys 
causes  clinkers  to  fuse  to  the  brickwork.  Practice  therefore 
demands  that  the  thickness  of  the  fire  be  limited,  that  steam  be 
used  to  avoid  extreme  temperatures,  and  that  the  mass  be  kept 
thoroughly  broken  by  poking." 

However,  the  fuel  beds,  in  producers  having  mechanical  means 
for  its  agitation,  may  be  considerably  deeper  than  given  in  the 
preceding  paragraph,  and  at  the  same  time  induce  more  desirable 
conditions  for  satisfactory  gasification. 

§  108.    Temperature  of  gas. 

On  account  of  the  sensible  heat  loss  (§  147)  when  the  gas  leaves 
at  a  high  temperature,  the  producer  should  be  so  designed  and 
operated  that  the  temperature  of  the  issuing  gas  will  be  low. 
The  quantity  of  steam  used  and  depth  of  fuel  bed  should  be  so 
regulated  that  the  temperature  of  the  fire  is  kept  low.  Further, 
a  recuperative  device  (see  §  113)  should  be  used  to  pre-heat  the 
air  and  thus  further  deprive  the  gas  of  its  sensible  heat  and  re- 
turn it  to  the  producer.  The  drying  and  pre-heating  of  the  fuel 
by  means  of  the  sensible  heat  in  the  gas  are  also  very  desirable. 

It  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  this  cooling  of  the  gas 
should  be  done  at  the  producer  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  ab- 
stracted heat  is  returned  to  the  producer.  Where  the  gas  is 
used  in  furnaces,  the  heat  loss  between  the  producer  and  furnace 
should  be  kept  as  low  as  possible. 

However,  the  sensible  heat  of  the  gas  is  of  no  value  when  the 
gas  is  used  in  an  engine,  and  a  low  temperature  is  very  desirable 
for  such  work. 

Hot  gas  requires  larger  ports  and  passages  than  cold  gas. 
The  calorific  power  of  a  cubic  foot  of  cold  gas  is  distributed  over 


62       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

about  three  cubic  feet  when  the  gas  is  at  a  temperature  of  1200 
degrees  F.  Hence,  it  takes  about  three  cubic  feet  of  hot  gas  to 
carry  as  many  heat  units  as  one  cubic  foot  of  cold  gas  contains. 

With  reference  to  the  use  of  producer-gas  in  steel  furnaces, 
Campbell  (B  66)  gives  the  following:  "The  sensible  heat  of  the 
gas  is  regarded  as  a  total  loss,  since  a  rise  in  temperature  at  the 
entrance  flue  of  the  furnace  means  a  similar  and  equal  rise  in 
temperature  for  the  products  of  combustion  escaping  in  the 
stack.  It  is  therefore  important  to  so  adjust  the  calorific  work 
of  the  producer  that  the  heat  developed  is  utilized  in  the  heart 
of  the  fire  and  the  escaping  gases  are  kept  as  low  as  possible. 
The  use  of  steam  will  lower  the  temperature,  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  cooling  of  the  upper  part  of  the  fire,  by  steam 
from  the  grate,  implies  cooling  of  the  zones  of  decomposition 
and  combustion  to  the  same  degree,  so  that  the  utilization  of 
the  sensible  heat  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  fuel  involves  the 
presence  of  an  increased  amount  of  undecomposed  steam  in  the 
gases." 

Where  producers  are  used  for  heating  regenerative  steel  fur- 
naces, "  some  engineers  advocate  —  with  plausible  and,  at  first 
sight,  conclusive  reasons  —  placing  the  producer  near  the  fur- 
nace, under  the  impression  that  thereby  they  save  the  sensible 
heat  of  the  gas.  It  is  true  that  when  the  gas  is  hot,  less  heating 
of  the  gas  chambers  is  required,  and  hence  less  checkerwork  will 
suffice,  but  this  is  a  small  matter  and  has  no  bearing  on  the  fuel 
economy.  Whatever  is  gained  by  hot  gas  at  the  incoming  end, 
is  lost  on  reversal  in  the  outgoing  products  of  combustion.  More- 
over, a  special  system  of  valves  must  be  used  to  handle  the  hot 
gases;  ordinary  valves  soon  warp  and  leak,  and  water  cooling 
is  not  to  be  thought  of  in  this  case,  for  this  involves  chilling  the 
gas,  which  is  manifestly  opposed  to  the  intent  of  the  practice  in 
question.  With  hot  gas,  the  soot  and  tar  will  be  deposited  in  the 
regenerators  and  this  is  objectionable.  Cool  gas  is  very  desirable 
for  the  preservation  of  dampers  and  valves.  Hot  gas  does  not 
tend  to  economize  energy,  since  the  loss  of  heat  in  the  -escaping 
products  of  combustion  offsets  the  apparent  gain." 

§  109.   Pre-heating  air.     (B  19.) 

The  use  of  pre-heated  air  is  of  the  greatest  importance  when- 
ever it  is  desirable  to  use  fuel  in  an  economical  manner.  The 


THE  MANUFACTURE  AND  USE  OF  PRODUCER-GAS.       63 


pioneer  iron  masters  recognized  this  fact  at  an  early  period  in 
the  development  of  the  blast  furnace,  and  the  pre-heating  of  air 
for  that  purpose  was  begun  as  early  as  1829.  In  any  gas  furnace 
it  is  very  desirable  to  use  air  at  a  temperature  considerably  above 
that  of  the  atmosphere.  The  Hoffman  kiln  which  is  used  so 
extensively  in  Europe,  the  Siemens  regenerative  furnace  which 
is  used  the  world  over,  and  many  of  the  direct-acting  regenerators 
would  not  be  of  any  use  at  all  without  the  use  of  pre-heated  air. 
The  primary  function  of  pre-heated  air  is  to  increase  the  intensity 
of  combustion.  At  a  high  temperature  the  affinity  of  air  for  car- 
bon is  greater  than  at  atmospheric  temperature,  and  combustion 
will  be  very  much  more  vigorous.  Pre-heated  air  should  be  used 
in  gas-producers  whenever  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  In  producers 
used  for  power  purposes,  the  waste  heat  in  the  gas  engine  exhaust 
should  be  used  in  pre-heating  the  air. 

§  110.    Uses  of  producer-gas. 
The  following  diagram  shows  the  general  uses  of  producer-gas: 


Fuel  for  gas  engines 

(see  Chapters  17  and  24). 

Firing  steam  boilers 
(see  Chapter  21). 

brick  kilns. 


General  uses  of 
producer-gas. 


3.  Firing  ceramic  kilns 
(see  Chapter  20). 


tile  kilns, 
pottery  kilns, 
muffle  kilns, 
lime  kilns, 
cement  kilns. 

forges. 


4.  Firing  metallurgical  furnaces 


steel  furnaces, 
muffle  furnaces, 
glass  furnaces* 
roasting  furnaces. 


Since  producer-gas  is  frequently  used  in  connection  with  re- 
generators and  recuperators,  these  appliances  are  discussed  in 
§  112,  113,  114  and  115. 

§  111.    Advantages  of  gas-firing. 
The  general  advantages  of  gas-firing  are: 

1.  Less  loss  by  oxidation  in  furnace;  this  is  made  possible  by 
the  decreased  air  excess  required  for  combustion. 

2.  Temperature  and  character  of  flame  are  under  better  con- 
trol. 

3.  Higher  working  temperatures  may  be  obtained. 


64       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS- 

4.    Increased  fuel  economy. 

For  specific  advantages  when  applied  to  a  particular  class  of 
work,  see  §  252  and  §  256. 

§  112.    Regenerators. 

In  order  to  pre-heat  the  air  —  and  in  some  cases  the  gas  also  — 
for  combustion,  some  of  the  sensible  heat  in  the  products  of  com- 


FIG.  3.  —  DIAGRAM  OF  REGENERATOR. 

bustion  is  filtered  out  and  given  to  the  air  or  gas  by  means  of  a 
regenerator.  The  details  of  construction  of  the  latter  will  vary 
with  local  conditions.  However,  the  principle  embodied  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  3.  A  is  the  furnace.  B  is  the  gas  flue  from  pro- 


THE  MANUFACTURE  AND  USE  OF  PRODUCER-GAS.       65 

ducer.  C  is  the  air-inlet  flue.  D  is  the  chimney.  E  and  F  are 
reversing  valves.  G  and  J  are  the  air  regenerators.  H  and  / 
are  the  gas  regenerators.  The  chambers  G,  H,  I,  and  J  are  filled 
with  checkerwork,  which  acts  as  a  heat  trap. 

The  operation  is  as  follows:  The  air  comes  in  through  C,  and 
the  gas  through  D;  as  they  pass  through  G  and  H  they  become 
heated,  on  account  of  the  high  temperature  of  the  brick  checker- 
work  through  which  they  pass.  Then  they  pass  to  the  furnace 
which  they  enter  through  separate  ports,  mixing  directly  on  the 
inside  where  the  intense  combustion  begins.  The  products  of 
combustion  then  pass  out  through  the  ports  in  the  opposite  side 
of  the  furnace  and  enter  the  regenerator  chambers  /  and  J ,  where 
the  checkerwork  absorbs  a  portion  of  the  sensible  heat;  from  7 
and  J  the  gases  go  to  the  stack  D.  In  the  illustration  the  arrows 
indicate  the  respective  directions  of  travel. 

In  this  stage  of  the  process,  the  incoming  air  and  gas  absorb 
the  heat  stored  in  G  and  H,  which  are  cooled  down;  at  the 
same  time,  the  escaping  products  of  combustion  have  been 
depositing  a  portion  of  their  sensible  heat  in  /  and  J,  causing 
them  to  become  heated  up.  After  about  thirty  minutes  of  use, 
G  and  H  will  have  given  up  the  larger  part  of  their  heat,  and  / 
and  J  will  have  absorbed  about  their  full  capacity  —  since,  in 
order  to  absorb  heat,  /  and  J  must  be  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  that  of  the  combustion  products.  Then  the  valves  E  and  F 
are  turned,  and  the  direction  of  the  gas,  air,  and  combustion  prod- 
ucts reversed,  when  exactly  the  same  action  takes  place  again. 
This  is  the  essential  principle  of  the  Siemens  "regenerative  fur- 
nace/' and  is  thus  known.  A  modified  form  of  regeneration  is 
used  in  the  Mond  by-product  process.  (See  §  229.) 

§  113.    Recuperation. 

Recuperation  is  a  system  of  pre-heating  the  air:  in  this  the 
products  of  combustion  or  hot  gases  are  usually  passed  around 
tubes  through  which  passes  the  air  to  be  pre-heated,  the  air  thus 
absorbing  some  of  the  heat.  The  tubes  are  usually  made  of  a 
clay  product,  since  the  high  temperature  would  soon  cause  an 
iron  tube  to  deteriorate.  Ebelmen  used  this  principle  on  one 
of  his  first  producers.  (See  §  178.) 

The  principle  of  recuperation  is  also  used  in  the  Mond  by- 
product process.  (See  §  229.) 


66       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  114.    Comparison  of  regeneration  and  recuperation.     (B  194.) 

The  regenerative  system  must  be  reversed  about  every  thirty 
minutes:  on  the  other  hand,  the  recuperative  system  is  continu- 
ous. However,  the  former  is  more  efficient  in  recovering  the 
waste  heat,  because  the  air  and  gas  come  in  direct  contact  with 
the  hot  side  of  the  heat  filter,  whereas  in  recuperation  the  wrong 
side  of  a  clay  tube  is  presented.  With  regeneration,  it  is  practi- 
cal to  heat  both  air  and  gas,  while  with  recuperation  the  air  only 
may  be  heated.  The  difficulty  of  heating  the  gas  is  caused  by 
the  deposition  of  carbon  in  the  tubes,  which  soon  renders  them 
useless  as  heat  filters.  However,  the  heating  of  the  gas  is  not 
usually  important.  With  high  temperatures,  the  regenerative 
system  will  cost  less  for  repairs  than  the  recuperative;  the  plain 
bricks  used  in  the  former  cost  less  and  are  more  durable  than  the 
clay  tubes  used  in  the  latter. 

§  115.    Value  of  regeneration  and  recuperation.     (B  194.) 

The  values  of  both  systems  have  been  frequently  overestimated. 
In  general,  the  value  will  depend  upon  the  cost  of  the  raw  fuel; 
if  that  is  very  low,  the  first  cost  and  the  cost  of  operating  any 
heat-filtering  device  may  preclude  its  use. 

The  products  of  combustion  cannot  heat  any  system  to  a 
temperature  higher  than  their  own.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  on 
account  of  the  large  radiation  losses  and  inefficient  transfer  of 
heat  in  the  heat  filter,  the  attainable  temperature  of  the  pre- 
heated air  or  gas  will  always  be  much  less  than  the  temperature 
of  the  combustion  products. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

USE    OF    STEAM    IN    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  116.    Object. 

The  primary  object  in  the  use  of  steam  in  a  gas-producer  is  to 
increase  the  calorific  power  of  the  gas  and  eliminate  some  of  the 
difficulties  in  connection  with  producer  operation.  Its  use  will 
retard  clinkering,  reduce  the  inert  N,  lower  the  temperature  of 
the  exit  gases,  and  in  this  way  decrease  the  loss  of  sensible  heat 
in  gases. 

§  117.    Action. 

The  action  of  the  steam  is  not  complicated;  coming  in  contact 
with  the  incandescent  C,  the  steam  is  decomposed  and  a  mixture 
of  CO  and  H  is  evolved.  Thus: 


C  +  H2O  = 

12  +  18     -  28  +  2 
6  +  9      =  14+1 

By  the  equation  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  6  Ib.  of  C  will  be 
oxidized  for  each  pound  of  H  liberated;  however,  the  amount  of 
CO  evolved  from  each  pound  of  C  is  the  same  as  if  the  C  were 
burned  by  air,  but  the  inert  N  has  been  eliminated  and  the  CO 
is  now  mixed  with  its  own  weight  of  H,  thereby  increasing  the 
calorific  power  of  the  resulting  gas.  The  chemical  reaction  as  a 
whole  is  endothermic  (see  §  34)  and  may  be  divided  into  two 
distinct  steps: 

(1)  The  formation  of  CO,  and  this  will  evolve  heat  exactly 
as  when  the  oxidation  takes  place  by  means  of  air. 

(2)  The  decomposition  of  water,  which  will  absorb  a  large 
quantity  of  heat.     The  heat  absorbed  will  be  that  required  in 
separating  1  Ib.  of  H  from  8  Ib.  of  O,  with  which  it  is  combined 
in  the  form  of  water.     The  heat  evolved  will  be  that  given  out 
by  the  combustion  of  6  Ib.  of  C  to  CO. 

67 


68       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


Heat  absorbed  =  62100 XI  =62100  B.  t.  u. 
Heat  evolved    =  4480X6  =  26880  B.  t.  u. 

35220  B.  t.  u. 

Heat  absorbed  from  producer  per  Ib.  of  C  =  35220  4-6  =  5870 
B.  t.  u. 

Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  amount  of  steam  that  can  be  used  is 
limited,  for  unless  heat  be  supplied  in  some  way,  the  fuel  would 
soon  become  so  cool  that  the  reactions  would  not  take  place. 

§  118.    Effect  of  temperature  on  action. 

The  effect  of  temperature  on  the  reaction  between  steam  and 
C  is  of  fundamental  importance,  and  data  showing  the  effects  of 
different  temperatures  are  given  in  table  5.  The  figures  were 
obtained  from  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Bunte.  (B  163.)  Table 
5  shows  conclusively  that  it  is  very  desirable  to  keep  the 
decomposition,  zone  at  a  high  temperature. 

TABLE  5. 

EFFECTS   OF  TEMPERATURE   ON   ACTION   OF   STEAM. 


TEMPERATURE,  C 

PERCENTAGE  OF 
STEAM  DECOMPOSED 

COMPOSITION  OF  GAS  BY  VOLUME 

H 

CO 

CO2 

674 

8.8 

65.2 

4.9 

29.8 

758 

25.3 

65.2 

7.8 

27. 

838 

41. 

61.9 

15.1 

22.9 

954 

70.2 

53.3 

39.3 

6.8 

1010 

94. 

48.8 

49.7 

1.5 

1125 

99.4 

50.9 

48.5 

.6 

§  119.    Function  of  the  steam. 

The  recoverable  excess  of  the  sensible  heat  of  the  producer  is 
conserved  by  taking  advantage  of  the  fact  that  when  a  chemical 
compound  is  decomposed,  it  absorbs  an  amount  of  heat  equal 
to  that  which  is  evolved  when  its  elements  unite  to  form  it.  (See 
§  33.)  Thus,  the  heat  absorbed  in  the  decomposition  of  the 
water  is  conserved  in  the  heat  energy  of  the  liberated  H.  Thus 
the  primary  function  of  the  steam  is  to  act  as  a  carrier  of  heat 
energy.  The  heat  which  was  absorbed  by  its  decomposition 
is  given  out  again  when  the  constituents  of  the  gas  are  burned. 
No  possible  use  of  steam  can  cause  a  gain  of  heat  in  the  producer, 
and  in  no  ^possible  circumstances  can  more,  heat  be  given  out  than 
was  previously  absorbed;  and  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  gas 


USE  OF  STEAM  IN  GAS-PRODUCERS.  69 

can  never  exceed,  however  closely  it  may  be  made  to  approach, 
that  which  the  solid  fuel  could  give.  However,  the  judicious 
use  of  steam  may  reduce  the  loss  of  heat  in  the  producer  to  about 
15  per  cent  of  the  heating  power  of  the  fuel.  A  further  function 
is  to  alter  the  composition  of  the  gas;  the  effect  of  this  is  shown 
in  table  6.  This  is  interesting  historically  in  that  the  figures 
were  obtained  from  observations  made  by  Ebelmen,  the  de- 
signer of  one  of  the  first  gas-producers  built.  (B  5.) 

TABLE  6. 

EFFECT    OF   STEAM    ON    COMPOSITION    OF   GAS. 


CONSTITUENT 

WITH  AIR  BLAST 

WITH  AIR  AND  STEAM 
FOR  BLAST 

CO 

33.04 

27.2 

H 

4.43 

14.0 

CO2 

.41 

5.5 

N 

62.12 

53.3 

§  120.   Proportion  of  air  and  steam. 

The  proportions  of  air  and  steam  required  will  vary  with  the 
type  and  condition  of  producer  and  blower,  nature  of  fuel  and 
the  purpose  for  which  the  gas  is  to  be  used.  However,  10  parts 
of  steam  and  90  parts  of  air  represent  a  usual  proportion.  As 
the  specific  gravity  of  steam  with  reference  to  air  is  0.6218,  10 
per  cent  by  volume  of  steam  will  be  about  6  per  cent  by  weight; 
therefore,  6  Ib.  of  steam  with  94  Ib.  of  air  is  a  usual  proportion. 

C-h  O  =  CO 
12+16  =  28 

3+  4=   7 

Thus  4  Ib.  of  0  are  required  for  the  combustion  of  3  Ib.  of  C,  or 
1.33  Ib.  of  O  per  Ib.  of  C,  to  form  CO.  Since  air  contains  23  per 
cent  of  O  by  weight,  the  quantity  of  air  required  to  burn  1  Ib.  of 
C  will  be 


and  one  Ib.  of  air  will  burn 


C  +  H20  =  CO  +  2H 

12+  18  =28+2 
6+    9    =14+1 


70       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Thus  9  Ib.  of  steam  will  be  required  to  burn  6  Ib.  of  C,  or  1.5  Ib. 

1 
of  steam  per  Ib.  of  C,  and  1  Ib.  of  steam  will  burn  —  =0.67  Ib.  C. 

In  a  mixture  of  100  Ib.  of  this  proportion, 

6    Ib.  steam  X  0.67=  41b.  of  C  burnt  by  steam. 

94  Ifi 

Ib.    air    X0.17  =  ^  Ib.  of  C  burnt  by  air. 


™ 


20 


Thus  the  average  practice  is,  for  every  5  Ib.  of  C  consumed,  4  Ib. 

are  burned  by  air  and  1  Ib.  by  steam.     However,  there  are  cases 

where  the  amount  of  steam  used  is  far  in  excess  of  the  above 

proportion. 

§  121.   Quantity  of  steam. 

The  more  steam  that  can  be  used  the  better  and  richer  will  be 
the  gas  evolved,  and  the  smaller  will  be  the  proportion  of  heat 
evolved  in  the  producer.  However,  the  amount  of  steam  that 
can  be  used  depends  on  the  amount  of  heat  lost  in  the  decom- 
position of  the  steam  and  other  sources.  Therefore,  any  device 
or  arrangement  which  prevents  the  loss  of  heat  in  the  producer, 
or  pre-heats  the  air  and  steam  before  these  enter  the  producer, 
must  be  an  advantage.  At  the  same  time,  excess  of  steam  must 
be  carefully  guarded  against.  Not  only  will  it  cool  the  producer 
if  it  be  decomposed,  but  if  not  decomposed  it  will  pass  through  as 
steam,  and  thus  lower  the  heating  value  of  the  gas. 

Table  7,  which  is  composed  of  data  collected  by  Jenkin  (B  99), 
shows  the  effects  of  different  amounts  of  steam. 

TABLE  7. 

EFFECT  OF  DIFFERENT  AMOUNTS  OF  STEAM  ON  GAS. 


MODERATE  EXCESS 
OF  STEAM 

GREAT  EXCESS 
OF  STEAM 

MAXIMUM  QUANTITY 
OF  STEAM 

CO2% 

53 

89 

15 

co% 

23.5 

164 

11  5 

CH<% 

3.3 

2.55 

1  9 

H% 

13.14 

18.6 

246 

Calorific  power. 
Temperature  .  .  . 

1343. 
800C 

1202. 
700  C 

1150. 
500  C 

With  the  proportions  assumed  in  §  120,  1  Ib.  of  steam  would  be 
required  for  every  5  Ib.  of  C  burned,  or  0.2  Ib.  of  steam  for  each 
pound  of  fixed  C  in  the  fuel.  However,  with  pre-heated  air  and 
superheated  steam,  a  much  larger  quantity  of  steam  may  be  used. 


USE  OF  STEAM  IN  GAS-PRODUCERS.  71 

§  122.    Mechanical  effect.     (B  72.) 

Steam  will  keep  the  clinkers  soft  and  porous,  thus  allowing 
the  blast  to  pass  up  readily  through  the  entire  bed  of  fuel;  this 
gives  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  blast.  In  the  absence  of 
steam,  when  the  clinkers  are  hard,  it  is  necessary  for  the  blast 
to  pass  up  through  the  interstices  between  the  clinkers.  This 
is  frequently  the  case  when  an  all-air  blast  is  used,  since  this 
tends  to  localize  combustion  and  form  the  clinkers  into  hard 
and  non-porous  lumps  through  which  the  air  cannot  pass. 

The  mechanical  effect  of  the  steam  on  the  ashes  is  to  moisten 
them,  keep  combustion  away  from  the  grate  and  thus  protect 
the  latter,  prevent  the  blowing  of  fine  ashes  up  and  into  the  com- 
bustion zone  and  the  fusing  of  the  ashes  to  the  walls  of  the  pro- 
ducer. 

§  123.    Water  vapor. 

An  excessive  use  of  steam  will  result  in  part  of  it  passing  through 
the  fire  without  being  decomposed,  and  then  passing  into  the  gas 
and  appearing  there  as  water  vapor,  and  in  this  way  decreasing 
the  value  of  the  gas.  For  the  method  of  determining  the  water 
vapor  in  the  gas  see  §  331. 

§  124.    Summary. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary r  by  Raymond  (B  72),  of  the 
facts  and  principles  involved : 

(1)  No  possible  use  of  steam  can  cause  a  gain  of  heat.     If 
steam  be  introduced  into  a  bed  of   incandescent  carbon,  it   is 
decomposed  into  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

(2)  The  heat  absorbed  by  the  reduction  of  1  Ib.  of  steam  to 
H  is  much  greater  in  amount  than  the  heat  generated  by  the 
union  of  the  O  thus  set  free  with  C  forming  either  CO  or  CO2. 
Hence  the  effect  of  steam  upon  a  bed  of  incandescent  fuel  is  to 
chill  it. 

(3)  This  loss  may  be  recovered  if  the  H  of  the  steam  is  sub- 
sequently burned  to  form  steam  again.     Such  a  combustion  of 
the  H  is  contemplated  in  the  case  of  fuel  gas  as  secured  in  the 
subsequent  use  of  the  gas. 

(4)  The  advantages  to  be  secured  consist  principally  in  the 
transfer  of  heat  from  the  lower  side  of  the  fire,  where  it  is  not 
wanted,  to  the  upper  side,  where  it  is  wanted.     The  decomposi- 
tion of  the  steam  below  cools  the  fuel  and  the  grates,  whereas  a 


72       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

blast  of  air  alone  would  produce  at  that  point  intense  combustion 
(forming  at  first  CO2),  to  the  injury  of  the  grate,  the  fusing  of 
the  fuel,  etc. 

(5)  The  proportion  of  steam  most  economical  is  not  easily 
determined.  The  temperature  of  the  steam  itself,  the  nature 
of  the  fuel,  air  supply,  and  form  of  bottom  affect  the  problem. 

§  125.   Steam  blowers.     (B  171,  B  12.) 

The  method  of  supplying  the  steam  and  air  is  of  fundamental 
importance  because  the  blast  has  such  a  vital  bearing  on  the 
operation  of  the  producer.  The  steam-jet  blower  is  almost 
universally  used ;  it  requires  less  steam,  costs  less  than  any  other 
type,  and  secures  a  thorough  mixture  of  the  steam  and  air  by 
introducing  them  together.  The  principle  of  operation  is  very 
simple,  and  depends  on  the  well-known  fact  that  when  a  stream 
of  any  fluid  is  sent  through  the  air,  the  friction  between  the  fluid 
and  the  air  is  enough  to  draw  the  latter  along  in  the  direction 
that  the  fluid  is  moving  and  in  this  way  induce  a  current  of  air. 
In  fact,  the  steam-jet  blower  is  simply  an  air  injector. 

Siemens  conducted  the  first  careful  and  extensive  experiments 
that  were  made  on  steam  jets,  and  from  these  experiments  he 
drew  the  following  conclusions.  (B  12.) 

"First,  the  quantity  of  air  delivered  per  minute  by  a  steam 
jet  depends  upon  the  extent  of  surface  contact  between  the  air 
and  the  steam,  irrespective  of  the  steam  pressure,  up  to  the  limit 
of  exhaustion  or  compression  that  the  jet  is  capable  of  producing. 

"Second,  the  maximum  degree  of  vacuum  or  pressure  attain- 
able increases  in  direct  proportion  to  the  steam  pressure  em- 
ployed, other  circumstances  being  similar. 

"Third,  the  quantity  of  air  delivered  per  minute,  within  the 
limits  of  effective  action  of  the  apparatus,  is  in  inverse  relation 
to  the  weight  of  air  acted  upon;  and  a  better  result  is  therefore 
realized  in  exhausting  air  than  in  compressing  it. 

"Fourth,  the  limits  of  air  pressure  attainable  with  a  given 
pressure  of  steam  are  the  same  in  compressing  and  in  exhausting, 
within  the  limit  of  a  perfect  vacuum  in  the  latter  case." 

Hence,  the  amount  of  air  carried  with  a  steam  jet  is  a  function 
of  the  area  of  the  surface  contact  between  the  two  and  the  velocity 
of  the  steam,  and  as  the  latter  increases  with,  and  is  proportional 
to,  the  steam  pressure  used,  it  is  evident  that  a  large  area  of  sur- 


USE  OF  STEAM  IN  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


73 


face  contact  between  the  steam  and  air  is  necessary,  and  the  steam 
must  be  used  at  considerable  pressure  in  order  to  produce  a  good 
draft  of  air.  As  the  amount  of  air  required  in  a  gas-producer 


is  very  much  larger  than  the  amount  of  steam  that  may  be  used 
(see  §  120),  it  follows  that  a  small  quantity  of  steam  must  carry 


74       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

in  a  large  quantity  of  air.  Since  a  solid  steam  jet  has  relatively 
little  surface  contact  for  a  given  quantity  of  steam,  it  is  not  well 
adapted  to  carry  a  large  volume  of  air.  To  increase  the  air- 
carrying  power  of  a  given  quantity  of  steam,  the  jet  is  made  of 
annular  form. 

§  126.    Types  of  steam  blowers.     (B  12,  B  95.) 

The  Siemens  steam-jet  blower  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  It  consists 
of  a  body  A  with  air  inlet  B  and  steam  inlet  C.  D  is  the  outer 
conical  nozzle  and  E  is  the  inner  conical  nozzle.  D  may  be 
adjusted  by  nut  F  and  thus  change  the  space  between  A  and 
thereby  regulate  the  amount  of  air  that  may  enter.  E  may  be 
adjusted  by  hand  wheel  G,  and  thus  regulate  the  thickness  of 
the  annular  steam  jet.  H  is  a  tapering  spindle  to  prevent  reflux 
through  the  combined  current.  I  is  the  pipe  to  the  producer. 


AIR 


FIG.  5.  —  SIEMENS  STEAM  BLOWER. 

A  modified  form  of  the  blower  just  described  is  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
A  is  the  body  of  the  blower  with  auxiliary  air-ports  B.  C  is  the 
inlet  for  the  steam  which  enters  the  mixing  chamber  G  through 
the  conical  nozzle  F.  The  nozzle  D  may  be  adjusted  by  hand 
wheel  E.  Since  D  is  tapering,  the  adjusting  of  it  will  change 
the  thickness  of  the  annular  steam  jet.  The  air  enters  through 
B  and  D. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  Thwaite  steam  blower.  This  is  composed 
of  a  body  A,  adjustable  head  B,  which  is  held  by  nuts  C.  D  is 
the  steam  inlet;  E  is  the  outer  conical  nozzle  and  F  is  the  inner; 


USE  OF  STEAM  IN  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


75 


the  latter  may  be  adjusted  by  wheel  G.     H  is  the  mixing  cham- 
ber.    The  air  enters  at  /  and  through  F. 


FIG.  6.  —  THWAITE  STEAM  BLOWER. 

The  Argand  steam  blower  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  It  consists  of  a 
curved  annular  body  A,  which  contains  the  ring  B.  B  has  small 
holes  on  the  one  side  and  is  supplied  with  steam  by  pipe  C.  The 


FIG.  7.  —  ARGAND  STEAM  BLOWER. 


76       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


FIG.  8.  —  SOLID  JET 
STEAM  BLOWER. 


FIG.  9.  —  EYNON-EVANS 
STEAM  BLOWER. 


USE  OF  STEAM  IN  GAS-PRODUCERS 


77 


78       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

steam  enters  the  mixing  chamber  D  in  a  large  number  of  fine 
sprays,  and  draws  the  air  in  with  it. 

Fig.  8  is  an  ordinary  solid  jet  steam  blower;  these  are  very 
inefficient  on  account  of  the  small  surface  of  contact  between 
the  air  and  the  steam. 

The  Eynon-Evans  steam  blower,  shown  in  Fig.  9,  belongs  to 
the  type  most  generally  used  in  this  country.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  four  concentric  conical  nozzles  through  which  the  steam 
and  air  pass,  additional  air  being  drawn  in  at  each  nozzle.  This 
secures  a  thorough  mixture  of  the  steam  and  air,  and  as  the  area 
of  surface  contact  is  large,  the  blower  is  very  efficient. 

The  curves  shown  in  Fig.  10  show  the  efficiencies  of  two  dif- 
ferent types  of  blowers.  Curves  1  and  2  were  made  from  data 
obtained  from  a  Eynon-Evans  blower,  and  curves  3  and  4  were 
made  from  data  obtained  in  testing  a  solid  jet  blower  like  the 
one  shown  in  Fig.  8. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CARBON   DIOXIDE   IN    PRODUCER-GAS. 

§  127.    Presence  and  deleterious  effect. 

The  presence  of  C02  in  producer-gas  in  excess  of  3  per  cent  is 
always  indicative  of  a  badly  constructed  or  carelessly  operated 
producer.  It  is  an  indication  of  the  failure  of  the  producer  to 
decompose  the  CO2  formed  at  the  bottom  and  to  reduce  it  to  CO, 
or  shows  that  the  CO  evolved  from  the  producer  has  been  burned. 
The  CO2  represents  its  own  volume  of  CO  uselessly  burned  in 
the  producer,  thus  causing  a  serious  loss  of  heat  and  charging 
the  gas  with  a  useless  constituent.  Not  only  is  the  CO2  a  diluent, 
but  the  additional  O  required  for  its  formation  will  increase  the 
amount  of  N  in  the  gas,  and  thus  further  reduce  the  heating 
value  per  unit  volume. 

One  pound  of  C  burned  to  C02  evolves  14500  B.  t.  u. 
One  pound  of  C  burned  to  CO  evolves    4450  B.  t.  u. 

10050 

Hence,  for  every  pound  of  carbon  in  the  gas  in  the  form  of 
CO2,  there  will  be  a  waste  of  10050  heat  units  in  the  producer, 
and  a  decrease  of  the  heating  power  of  the  gas  by  about  the  same 
amount. 

The  deleterious  effect  of  even  a  small  percentage  of  CO2  may 
easily  be  illustrated  by  the  representative  gas  analysis  given  in 
§  55.  There  5.2  per  cent  CO2  places  0.0335x5.2  =  .174  Ib.  —  see 
col.  L  of  table  3,  p.  51  —  of  useless  C  in  every  100  cu.  ft.  of  the 
gas,  or  0.0017  Ib.  C  for  each  cu.  ft.  As  one  pound  of  C  will  make 
96.1  cu.  ft.  (§  55)  of  this  gas,  the  amount  of  useless  C  in  the 
gas  due  to  the  presence  of  5.2  per  cent  CO2  equals  96.1  X0.00174  = 
0.167  Ib. 

Hence,  for  every  pound  of  C  gasified  in  the  producer  when  the 
resulting  gas  contains  5.2  per  cent  CO2,  0.167  Ib.  is  wasted.  This 

79 


80       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

means  a  loss  of  10050X0.167  =  1678  B.  t.  u.,  or  over  11  per  cent 
of  the  calorific  energy  in  the  fuel.  In  other  words,  the  per- 
centage of  fuel  loss  due  to  the  formation  of  CO2  will  be  about 
double  the  percentage  of  the  CO2  in  the  gas  evolved  from  the 
fuel. 

§  128.    Effect  of  temperature  and  fuel  bed. 

A  low  temperature  in  the  producer,  especially  if  it  has  been 
caused  by  an  excessive  use  of  steam,  is  greatly  conducive  to  the 
formation  of  CO2,  and  an  irregular  temperature  will  have  a  like 
effect.  Thus,  the  log.  of  the  test  given  in  Fig.  108  shows  that 
just  as  soon  as  the  temperature  became  regular  the  percentage 
of  CO2  decreased  and  the  CO  increased.  In  the  experiments  con- 
ducted by  Mr.  Emerton  (B20),  the  results  of  which  are  given  in 
table  8,  it  was  found  that  the  CO2  was  lower  at  the  end  of  a 
charge  than  at  the  beginning,  thus  tending  to  show  that  the 
temperature  of  the  fire  had  more  effect  on  the  composition  of 
the  gas  than  the  depth  of  the  fuel. 

TABLE  8. 

VARIATION  IN  COMPOSITION  OF  PRODUCER-GAS. 


JUST  CHARGED 

HALF  HOUR 

ONE  HOUR 

END 

CO2 
CO 

9.47 
12.74 

9.48 

16.53 

8.96 
14.52 

6.72 
16.89 

While  a  considerable  depth  of  fuel  bed  is  desirable  for  the 
elimination  or  reduction  of  the  CO2,  yet  depth  of  fuel  alone  will 
not  suffice,  as  the  uniformity  or  compactness  of  the  fuel  bed  is  of 
equal  importance;  also,  thorough  and  frequent  but  not  too  vigor- 
ous poking  is  always  conducive  to  keeping  the  fuel  in  such  a  con- 
dition that  the  CO2  may  be  reduced. 

§  129.    Effect  of  feeding. 

Irregular  and  intermittent  feeding  will  always  produce  con- 
ditions favorable  for  the  formation  of  CO2.  The  chilling  effect 
of  a  fresh  charge  of  fuel,  especially  if  it  contains  much  moisture, 
will  so  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  upper  zone  of  the  producer 
that  the  C02  will  pass  through  without  being  reduced  to  CO. 
These  facts  are  very  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  the  use  of 
autorratic  feeding  devices  as  discussed  in  §§  161  and  286. 


CARBON  DIOXIDE  IN  PRODUCER-GAS.  81 

§  130.    Effect  of  leakage. 

The  leakage  of  air  up  through  the  fuel  or  up  along  the  walls  of 
the  producer,  or,  in  the  suction  type  of  producer,  the  leakage  of 
air  into  the  inside  through  the  walls  of  the  producer  will  always 
result  in  the  burning  of  the  gas  and  the  resultant  formation  of 
CO2.  For  this  reason  the  fuel  bed  should  be  kept  compact  and 
free  from  channels  and  all  connections  of  the  producer  free  from 
leaks. 


CHAPTER  X. 

EFFICIENCY    OF    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  131.    Heat  loss. 

When  fuel  is  gasified,  the  amount  of  heat  which  can  be  obtained 
by  the  combustion  of  the  gas  from  a  unit  weight  of  solid  fuel 
will  always  be  less  than  the  amount  of  heat  which  would  be 
evolved  by  the  complete  combustion  of  the  fuel  itself,  by  the 
amount  of  heat  evolved  in  the  producer  and  lost  in  the  process 
of  gasification. 

Let  H   =  Heating  power  of  1  Ib.  of  solid  fuel. 

H'  =  Heating  power  of  the  gas  from  1  Ib.  of  solid  fuel. 

H"  =  Heat  evolved  in  the  producer  for  each  pound  of  solid 

fuel  gasified. 
Then  H  = 


§  132.    Definition  of  efficiency.     (B  99.) 

It  is  obvious  that  the  lower  the  amount  of  heat  evolved  in  the 
producer  or  lost  in  the  process  of  gasification,  the  higher  will  be 
the  amount  of  heat  available  where  the  gas  is  to  be  used.  Pro- 
ducer-gas is  used  for  many  purposes,  but  in  all  cases  the  primary 
object  is  to  supply  heat;  this  heat  is  of  course  derived  from  the 
fuel  fed  into  the  producer.  Efficiency  is  equal  to  output  divided 
by  input.  Hence  the  efficiency  of  the  producer  is  defined  as  the 
ratio  of  the  heat  contained  in  the  gas  as  it  leaves  the  producer 
to  that  in  the  fuel  from  which  the  gas  is  made. 

TT' 

Efficiency  =  E  =^- 
±1 

§  133.    Two  kinds  of  efficiency. 

The  gas  is  simply  a  carrier  of  heat  energy  from  the  producer  to 
the  place  where  this  energy  is  to  be  utilized;  the  heat  contained 
in  the  gas  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  namely,  the  heat  of 
combustion  and  the  sensible  heat  of  the  gas  due  to  its  tempera- 
ture. It  will  always  be  desirable  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the 

82 


EFFICIENCY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  83 

gas  as  low  as  possible  as  it  leaves  the  producer.  When  the  gas 
is  cooled  after  leaving  the  producer  and  before  it  is  burnt,  the 
sensible  heat  is  abstracted  by  the  cooling  arrangement  and  is  no 
longer  available.  It  will  be  useful  to  consider  the  efficiency  of  pro- 
ducers both  when  the  gas  is  used  hot,  and  when  it  is  used  cold. 
For  simplicity,  these  two  values  may  be  called  the  hot-gas  and 
the  cold-gas  efficiencies  respectively. 

§  134.    Relation  of  utility  and  efficiency.      (See  App.,  note  11.) 

There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the  efficiency  and  the  utility 
of  a  gas-producer,  and  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  clearly  between 
them.  By  utility  is  meant  the  suitability  or  adaptability  to  the 
particular  work  that  the  producer  has  to  do.  For  instance,  if 
by-products,  such  as  ammonia,  tar,  etc.,  are  collected  from  the 
gas,  the  utility  of  a  producer  giving  large  quantities  of  such  pro- 
ducts with  a  poorer  gas  may  be  greater  than  that  of  a  more 
efficient  producer  which  gives  smaller  quantities  of  by-products. 
If  such  matters  were  taken  into  account,  the  efficiency  of  the 
apparatus  would  be  obtained,  considered  not  as  a  gas-producer 
alone,  but  as  a  tar,  ammonia,  and  gas-producer. 

§  135.    Relation  of  efficiency  and  calorific  power.     (B  99.) 

"  In  most  cases,  the  efficiency  of  a  furnace  burning  gas  depends 
to  some  extent  on  the  richness  of  the  gas;  this  is  measured  by  the 
'calorific  power'  of  the  heat  of  combustion  per  unit  volume  of 
the  gas.  The  quantity  is  determined  incidentally  in  the  calcula- 
tion of  the  efficiency  of  the  gas-producer.  In  practice  the  calo- 
rific power  usually,  but  not  always,  varies  approximately  with 
the  efficiency.  A  high  value  for  both  the  calorific  power  of  the 
gas  and  the  efficiency  of  the  producer  is  desirable;  it  is  well  to 
consider  both  figures  in  estimating  the  merits  of  a  producer. 
When  the  gas  is  to  be  used  in  a  gas  engine,  the  calorific  power 
is  of  more  importance  than  the  efficiency.  In  determining  the 
best  form  of  producer  for  any  given  circumstances,  many  other 
considerations  besides  its  efficiency  must  be  taken  into  account. 
However,  in  most  cases  the  efficiency  should  rank  as  one  of  the 
most  important,  and  after  any  form  of  producer  has  been  selected 
it  will  almost  always  be  desirable  to  work  it  as  efficiently  as  pos- 
sible." 

§  136.   Method  of  finding  efficiency. 
In  order  to  determine  the  efficiency,  one  must  determine  by 


84       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

experiment  the  average  analysis  of  the  gas,  the  amount  of  carbon 
in  the  fuel,  the  amount  of  carbon  lost  in  the  ashes,  the  heat  of 
combustion  of  the  fuel,  and  the  average  temperature  and  com- 
position of  the  gas.  These  should  be  made  according  to  the 
methods  given  in  Chapter  26. 

A  direct  method  for  finding  the  efficiency  of  a  producer  would 
be  to  measure  in  a  meter  the  quantity  of  gas  made,  and  burn 
samples  of  the  gas  and  fuel  in  a  calorimeter;  from  these  data  the 
efficiency  could  be  calculated  at  once.  However,  the  direct 
measurement  of  the  quantity  of  gas  made  is  not  usually  possible, 
and  recourse  must  be  had  to  chemical  analysis  to  find  the  rela- 
tion between  the  quantity  of  gas  made  and  the  fuel  burnt.  (See 
§55.) 

§  137.    Conditions  governing  efficiency. 

The  efficiency  will  be  reduced  by  any  action  which  tends  to 
evolve  heat  in  the  producer,  and  especially  by  the  production 
of  carbon  dioxide.  Conversely,  any  action,  such  as  the  use  of 
steam,  which  tends  to  reduce  the  evolution  of  heat  in  the  pro- 
ducer will  increase  the  efficiency. 

But  the  amount  of  steam  which  can  be  used  is  limited,  because 
the  temperature  of  the  producer  must  be  kept  up  to  that  at  which 
water  is  decomposed,  and  carbon  dioxide  is  converted  into  car- 
bon monoxide  by  the  incandescent  carbon.  An  increased  amount 
of  carbon  dioxide  will  be  the  result  of  a  decrease  in  temperature, 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  producer  will  thus  be  seriously  reduced. 

It  is  evident  that  the  heat  evolved  in  the  producer  must  always 
be  sufficient  to  balance  any  loss  of  heat  that  may  take  place,  and 
also  to  maintain  the  fuel  at  the  necessary  temperature,  so  that 
the  proper  chemical  reactions  can  take  place.  Therefore,  these 
heat  losses  determine  the  minimum  heat  evolution  in  the  pro- 
ducer. If  the  gases  are  used  hot,  the  efficiency  will  be  higher 
by  the  amount  of  sensible  heat  which  is  actually  utilized. 

§  138.    Coal  and  ash  analysis. 

No  reliable  determination  of  the  efficiency  of  a  producer  can 
be  made  without  an  accurate  analysis  of  the  coal  used  and  its 
resulting  ash.  An  ultimate  analysis  of  the  coal  should  be  made 
to  determine  its  exact  chemical  composition.  If  the  ashes  be- 
come wet,  the  amount  of  moisture  must  be  deducted.  The  exact 
amount  of  carbon  in  the  ash  can  easily  be  determined  by  burn- 


EFFICIENCY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  85 

ing  a  weighed  sample  and  observing  the  diminution  of  weight, 
which  must  be  due  to  the  combustion  of  the  carbon,  as  all  the 
other  volatile  constituents  have  been  driven  off  in  the  producer. 
(See  Chapter  26.) 

The  total  weight  of  the  carbon  in  the  ashes  divided  by  the  total 
weight  of  carbon  in  the  coal  burnt  during  the  same  period  will 
give  the  proportion  of  carbon  lost  in  the  ashes.  This  figure 
varies  largely  in  practice  and  is  discussed  in  the  following  section. 

§  139.    Grate  efficiency. 

A  certain  amount  of  fuel  will  always  escape  combustion  by 
falling  through  the  grate,  or  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  producer 
without  coming  in  contact  with  air.  The  amount  thus  lost 
should  be  very  small  in  a  good  producer.  In  most  producers  it 
is  not  more  than  2J  per  cent,  rarely  reaching  5  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  fuel.  However,  in  badly  constructed  producers 
this  loss  may  amount  to  30  per  cent. 

The  proportion  of  carbon  made  into  gas  is  equal  to  unity  minus 
the  amount  of  carbon  in  ash.  This  represents  the  grate  efficiency 
of  the  producer.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  efficiency  of  the 
producer  must  be  multiplied  by  the  grate  efficiency  to  give  actual 
working  efficiency  of  producer. 

§  140.   Heat  of  combustion  of  fuel. 

It  will  be  best  to  have  the  heat  of  combustion  determined  in  a 
reliable  form  of  calorimeter.  The  calorimetric  value  of  the  heat 
of  combustion  should  be  corrected  for  the  latent  heat  of  the 
steam  formed. 

§  141.    Temperatures. 

One  of  the  most  useful  guides  as  to  the  working  of  a  producer 
is  the  temperature  of  the  gas  and  the  extent  of  its  variations. 
The  temperatures  of  the  different  zones  will  also  show  if  the  pro- 
ducer is  working  properly.  The  curve  on  Fig.  108  shows  the 
fluctuation  of  temperature  during  a  producer  test. 

§  142.    Figure  of  merit. 

This  term  was  introduced  by  Jenkin  (B  99).  When,  the  fuel  is 
gasified,  all  the  hydrogen  present  will  go  into  the  gas,  together 
with  the  carbon,  except  that  which  escapes  gasification  by  pass- 
ing out  with  the  ash.  However,  the  carbon  will  be  represented 
in  the  gas  by  the  hydrocarbons  from  the  coal,  and  by  carbon 


86       A   TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

monoxide  and  carbon  dioxide  from  the  combustion  of  the  carbon. 
The  first  two  are  combustible  and  useful;  the  carbon  dioxide 
indicates  a  certain  amount  of  carbon  wasted  in  the  producer. 
Each  unit  weight  of  fuel  will  yield  a  certain  amount  of  gas  whose 
calorific  power  will  depend  upon  the  form  or  state  of  the  carbon 
in  the  gas. 

Hence,  the  real  value  —  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  "  Figure 
of  merit "  —  of  the  gas  will  be  defined  as  the  heating  power  of 
the  gas  per  unit  weight  of  carbon  contained.  Expressed  in  an- 
other form,  the  calorific  power  of  the  gas,  divided  by  the  weight 
of  carbon  in  a  cubic  foot,  gives  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  gas 
per  pound  of  carbon  contained  in  the  gas  —  that  is,  the  figure  of 
merit  of  the  gas. 

The  figure  of  merit  is  obtained  directly  from  the  volumetric 
analysis  of  the  gas  by  the  aid  of  columns  L  and  R  of  table  3,  p.  51. 

EXAMPLE  OF  CALCULATION  OF  FIGURE  OF  MERIT. 

A  B  C  D          E 

CO2 04 X  .0335  =  .00134 

^ X  .0034  =  .00748 

CO 254<"~ 

^^ X  342=  86.86 

^ X. 0337  =  .00505 

CH4 015<^  Lb.  C  per  cu.  ft.  =  .01387 

^^ Xl070=  16.05 

H Ill  X  346^=  38.4 

N -58  Calorific  power  =141.31 

1.000 

A=gas  analysis  by  volume  given  in  terms  of  1  cu.  ft. 

B=heating  value  or  calorific  power  per  cu.  ft. 

C  =AxB  =calorific  power  of  gas. 

D=pounds  of  C  in  1  cu.  ft.  of  gas ;  see  column  L,  table  3,  p.  51. 

E=AxD=pounds  carbon  in  gas. 

141  3 
Figure  of  merit  =-7-  ^=  =  10187  B.  t.  u.  per  pound  of  carbon  in  the  gas. 

.Uloo/ 

§  143.   Limited  use  of  figures  of  merit.     (B  99.) 

"The  figure  of  merit  can  be  used  to  compare  the  gas  made  in 
two  or  more  producers  (without  the  use  of  steam  or  air  under 
pressure)  working  with  similar  coal  and  under  similar  conditions, 
or  it  can  be  used  to  compare  the  gas  made  in  one  producer  at 
different  times,  but  it  cannot  be  used  to  compare  the  gas  made 
in  one  or  more  producers  with  varying  qualities  of  coal. 

"It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  tests  and  calculations  re- 
quired to  arrive  at  a  balance  sheet  of  all  the  heat  units  involved 


EFFICIENCY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  87 

are  in  no  way  simplified  by  adopting  the  figure  of  merit,  and  it 
is  decidedly  better  to  adopt  the  balance  sheet  in  all  cases.  It  is 
correct  and  cannot  mislead." 

§  144.    Cold-gas  efficiency.     (B  99.) 

Let  M    =  figure  of  merit. 

K    =  proportion  of  carbon  in  coal. 

H    =  heat  of  combustion  of  coal  measured  in  correspond- 
ing units  with  M. 
G     =  grate  efficiency. 
EC    =  cold-gas  efficiency. 

EC     = 


H 

The  product  of  M  and  G  is  a  complete  indication  of  how  economi- 
cally a  producer  is  working  as  long  as  one  quality  of  coal  is  used 
throughout  the  test. 

§  145.   Hot-gas  efficiency. 

This  differs  from  the  cold-gas  efficiency  only  because  account 
is  taken  of  the  sensible  heat  of  the  gas  as  it  leaves  the  producer, 
as  shown  by  the  formula. 

Let  EC  =  cold-gas  efficiency. 
Eh  =  hot-gas  efficiency. 
S    =  sensible  heat  of  gas  per  cubic  foot. 
H    =  calorific  power  of  the  gas. 
t     =  temperature  of  atmosphere. 
T    =  temperature  of  gas  as  it  leaves  the  producer. 
Cv  =  volumetric  specific  heat. 
S    =(T-t)  Cv 

Eh  =EC  X 


(        S\ 

I1  +  H); 


"Most  modern  producers  supply  hot  gas,  but  it  must  not  be 
assumed  on  this  account  that  the  real  efficiency  of  these  pro- 
ducers is  their  hot-gas  efficiency.  When  the  gas  is  used  without 
passing  through  a  regenerator,  the  sensible  heat  is  all  available, 
and  the  real  efficiency  is  the  hot-gas  efficiency;  but  when  the  gas 
is  used  with  a  regenerative  furnace  the  case  is  different,  and  it 
seems  probable  that  the  sensible  heat  is  almost  entirely  wasted, 


88     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

the  only  result  being  the  higher  temperature  of  the  chimney 
gases.  If  this  theory  is  correct,  then  for  all  producers  supplying 
gas  to  regenerative  furnaces  the  only  efficiency  which  need  be 
considered  is  the  cold-gas  efficiency."  (B  99.) 

§  146.   Effect  of  steam  on  efficiency. 

On  account  of  its  high  specific  heat,  a  relatively  small  volume 
of  steam  carries  with  it  a  large  quantity  of  heat.  Hence,  the 
amount  of  steam  in  a  gas  is  of  considerable  importance. 

If  the  gas  is  used  cold  the  heat  is  all  lost  in  the  cooling  appara- 
tus, and  if  the  gas  is  used  hot  the  steam  will  carry  its  heat  to 
the  furnace;  but  only  a  portion  of  it  can  be  used  there,  since  the 
products  of  combustion  escape  above  atmospheric  temperature. 


CHAPTER  XL- 
HEAT   BALANCE   OF   THE   GAS-PRODUCER. 


§  147.   Heat 

There  are  several  sources  of  heat  losses  in  a  gas-producer, 
none  of  which  can  be  entirely  eliminated,  but  all  of  which  may 
be  reduced. 

(1)  Loss  in  ashes.     The  heat  of  the  ashes  is  nearly  all  utilized 
while  lying  in  the  lower  part  of  the  fire  and  in  the  ash  pit,  in  heat- 
ing the  incoming  air  and  moisture;  the  amount  of  heat  actually 
carried  away  as  specific  heat  is  usually  small.     In  water-bottom 
producers  this  loss  may  be  nearly  zero,  as  any  heat  in  the  ashes  is 
used  in  volatilizing  some  of  the  water. 

(2)  The  loss  of  unburned  carbon  dropping  down  with  the  ash 
and  removed  with  it. 

(3)  The  loss  in  raising  the  air  and  the  resulting  products  of 
combustion  from  the  standard  temperature  (32  degrees  F.)  to  the 
temperature  of  the  delivery  flue.     This  loss  may  be  diminished 
by  pre-heating  the  air  by  waste  heat,  and  by  diminishing  the 
weight  of  diluent  air  in  excess  of  that  needed  for  combustion. 

(4)  Loss  in  the  latent  heat  of  the  volatilization  of  the  hydro- 
carbons. 

(5)  Loss  in  sensible  heat  of  the  gas  evolved.     The  gases  always 
leave  the  producer  at  a  high  temperature,  often  at  1000  degrees 
F.,  and   thus  carry  away  considerable   heat.     This  quantity  is 
large  in  nearly  all  ordinary  forms  of  producers;  there  is  no  need 
of  this,  and  the  cooler  the  gases  are  the  better. 

One  pound  of  carbon  will  give  6.7  Ib.  of  simple  producer-gas, 
which  has  a  specific  heat  of  about  0.245,  so  that  the  heat  carried 
away  will  be  0.245X6.7  =  1.641  heat  unit  for  each  pound  of  fuel, 
for  each  degree  of  temperature  of  the  gases;  or  at  1000  degrees  F., 
1641  heat  units,  or  about  11  per  cent  of  the  heat  which  the  solid 
fuel  could  give.  About  10  per  cent  is  the  usual  amount  of  heat 
to  be  carried  away  in  the  gases,  but  it  may  be  very  much  higher, 
especially  if  the  gas  contains  a  large  quantity  of  hydrogen  (sp. 


90       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

ht.  3.409),  or  if  undecomposed  steam  (sp.  ht.  0.48)  is  carried 
through,  or  if  the  fuel  is  wet.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  the 
escaping  gases  should  be  kept  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  pos- 
sible. 

(6)  Loss  due  to  evaporation  of  moisture  in  coal  and  to  heat- 
ing the  resulting  steam.     Hence  it  will  be  advisable  to  use  dry 
fuel,   and  the  coal  should  be  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
weather. 

(7)  Loss  in    heating   the    undecomposed    steam   that   passes 
through  the  fire.     This  is  very  objectionable  and  is  due  to  the 
supply  of  more  steam  than  the  incandescent  carbon  can  decom- 
pose under  the  conditions  of  working.     Steam  has  a  high  specific 
heat  and  a  high  latent  heat,  so  that  it  may  carry  away  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  heat. 

(8)  Loss  of  heat  in  the  decomposition  of  the  steam. 

(9)  Loss  of  heat  due  to  the  formation  of  carbon  dioxide. 
This  is  probably  the  most  serious  source  of  loss  in  most  forms  of 
producers.     The  presence  of  carbon  dioxide  is  always  due  to  the 
column  of  fuel  either  not  being  deep  enough  or  not  hot  enough 
to  decompose  all  the  carbon  dioxide  which  may  be  formed.     The 
effect  of  CO2  is  discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  9. 

(10)  Loss  of  solid  carbon  as  soot  and  tar.     The  cooling  of  the 
gases  has  a  tendency  to  increase  these  two  losses ;  however,  they 
are  usually  small.     The  amounts  of  tar  and  soot  deposited  in  the 
conducting  pipe  may  be  ascertained  by  the  quantities  removed 
from  time  to  time  in  cleaning  the  tube,  or  may  be  calculated  by 
the  method  of  §  331. 

(11)  Heat  lost  by  radiation.     The  hot  fuel  is  surrounded  by 
walls,  which  on  the  other  side  are  exposed  to  the  air.     Heat  will 
necessarily  travel  through  the  walls  and  will  be  lost  by  radiation 
and  conduction  into  space.     It  is  almost  impossible  to  form  an 
estimate  of  the  amount  of  heat  thus  lost,  but  it  is  certainly  very 
large. 

§  148.    Arrangement  of  heat  balance. 

The  simplest  arrangement  is  that  of  debit  and  credit  columns; 
this  is  given  in  table  9,  p.  91. 

§  149.    Calculation  of  heat  balance. 

32  degrees  F.  is  taken  as  the  standard  temperature  and  from 
this  all  temperature  ranges  are  calculated. 


HEAT  BALANCE  OF  THE  GAS-PRODUCER. 


91 


TABLE  9. 

HEAT  BALANCE. 


DR. 

To  heat  per  Ib.  of  coal. 

From  calorific  power  of  fuel A 

From  air  blast B 

From  steam  in  blast C 


Total  sum  of  debits  = 


CR. 

By  heat  per  Ib.  of  coal. 

Evolved  in  formation  of  CC>2 D 

Evolved  in  formation  of  CO E 

In  calorific  power  of  gas F 

Absorbed  in  decomposing  steam .  .  G 

Lost  in  ashes H 

Lost  in  unburned  carbon I 

Lost  in  tar  and  soot J 

Lost  in  volatilization  of  hydrocar- 
bons   K 

Lost  in  sensible  heat  of  gas L 

Lost  in  heating  undecomposed 

steam M 

Lost  in  evaporating  moisture  in 

coal N 

Lost  in  radiation P 

.  .  total  sum  of  credits 


i.e.  (A+B+C) 

A,  the  calorific  power  of  the  fuel,  is  that  found  experimentally 
by  means  of  a  reliable .  calorimeter. 

B     Let    T  =  temperature  F.  of  air  as  it  enters  producer. 

W  =  pounds  air  supplied  per  pound  of  fuel. 
(T-32)  WX 0.237  =  heat  carried  in  by  air  blast. 
C     Let    Ti  =  temperature  F.  of  the  steam  as  it  enters  the  pro- 
ducer. 

Wi  =  pounds  of  steam  used  per  pound  of  fuel. 
X   =  quality  of  steam. 
h    =heat  of  the  liquid  =  7\-  32. 
L    =  latent  heat  corresponding  to  T\. 
Q    =  total  heat  in  1  Ib.  of  steam  from  32  degrees. 
Q    =  XL  +  h. 
C    =TPi  (XL  +  h). 

D  =  lb.  carbon  as  CO2  (per  Ib.  of  fuel)  14,500. 
E  =lb.  carbon  as  CO  (per  Ib.  of  fuel)  4450. 
F  =  the  calorific  power  of  the  gas  found  by  the  method  of  §  53 

and  §  33. 

G  In  §  117,  it  was  shown  that  35,220  B.  t.  u.  were  absorbed  in 
decomposing  one  pound  of  hydrogen.  As  one  pound  of  steam  is 
composed  of  -J  pound  hydrogen  and  f  pound  oxygen  (see  §  47), 
the  decomposition  of  one  pound  of  steam  will  absorb  35,220  = 
3913  B.  t.  u.  9 

G  =  \b.  of  steam  decomposed  (per  Ib.  of  fuel)  3913. 


92       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

H    Let  W2  =  weight  of  ashes  (dry). 
T2  =  temperature  of  ashes. 
.16  =  specific  heat  of  ashes. 

#=TF2  (7^-32)  0.16 

I      Let       y= grate  efficiency  of  producer. 
100  — y  =  per  cent  of  unburned  carbon. 
(100  —  y)  A  =  heat  loss  in  unburned  carbon. 
.7     Calculate  the  weight  of  carbon  in  the  tar  and   soot   per 
unit   volume  (cu.  ft.)   of  gas  and   take    its    calorific    power   at 
14,500  B.  t.  u. 

Let  Z  =  weight  of  carbon  from  tar  and  soot  per  cu.  ft.  of  gas. 

J  =Z  (number  cu.  ft.  of  gas  per  Ib.  of  fuel)  14,500. 
K    Bell  gives  this  to  be  600  calories  per  kilogram  of  coal,  or 
1082  B.  t.  u.  per  pound  of  coal.     This  figure  is  not  very  reliable, 
but  for  want  of  a  more  exact  value  it  is  given  here. 

L     Let    V  =  volume  of  gas  in  cu.  ft.  per  pound  of  fuel  calcu- 
lated by  the  method  given  in  §  55. 
S  =  specific  heat  of  gas  calculated  by  the  method 

given  in  §  52. 

T3  =  temperature  of  escaping  gases. 
L=V  (T3  —  32)  S  =  sensible  heat  carried  out  by  gas. 
M    Let  TFm  =  per  cent  of  moisture  in  fuel. 

W\  =lb.  of  steam  used  per  Ib.  of  fuel. 
Wd  =lb.  of  steam  decomposed  per  Ib.  of  fuel. 
Wn  =lb.  of  undecomposed  steam  per  Ib.  of  fuel. 
Wv  =lb.  of  moisture  in  gas  per  Ib.  of  fuel. 

The  moisture  carried  in  by  the  air  may  be  neglected,  as  it  will 
be  very  small. 

Wi  +  Wm  =  Wd  +  Wv 

W\    +Wm-Wv=Wd 
Wl    -Wd  =  Wn 

Wi  to  be  found  by  the  method  of  §  324. 
Wv  to  be  found  by  the  method  of  §  331. 
Wmto  be  found  from  fuel  analysis. 
T3  =  temperature  of  escaping  gases. 
Tt  =  temperature  of  steam. 

M  =Wn(T3-T4)  0.475 

N    Evaporation  of  moisture  in  fuel  and  heating  of  resultant 
steam. 


HEAT  BALANCE  OF  THE  GAS-PRODUCER.  93 

Let  Wm  =  per  cent  of  moisture  in  fuel. 

T3  =  temperature  of  escaping  gases, 

(212-32)  Wm  =  E.  t.  u.  required  in  heating  from  32  to  212, 
966  Wm  =  B.  t.  u.  required  in  latent  heat  of  evaporation. 
(T3  —  212)   0.475   Wm  =  R.  t.  u.  required   in  heating  steam 

from  212  degrees  to  T3  degrees. 

#= total  heat  req.  =  (212-32)  TFw  +  966  Wm+  (!FS-212)  0.475  Wm 
=  Wm  [180  +  966  +  (T3-212)  0.475.] 

P  =  radiation  loss;   since  this  is  the  only  unknown,  it  may  be 
found  by  difference. 

Thus, 
=  P. 


CHAPTER  XIL 

FUEL, 

§150.   Early  fuels. 

Coke  and  charcoal  were  the  fuels  used  in  the  earliest  forms  of 
gas-producers,  and  they  are  still  used  where  the  gas  is  to  be  used 
in  gas  engines.  The  cost  of  these  is  too  high  for  ordinary  use  and 
cheaper  fuels  must  be  used  in  most  cases. 

§  151.    Character  of  fuel. 

A  thorough  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  kind  and 
character  of  fuel  to  be  used  is  a  primary  necessity.  Since  fuel 
varies  so  much  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  its  purchase;  however,  there  is  nothing 
that  is  bought  so  carelessly  by  the  ordinary  fuel  user.  Fuel  is 
seldom  sold  on  analysis  or  on  a  guarantee  of  its  heating  value, 
and  when  analyses  are  furnished  by  the  seller,  they  rarely  repre- 
sent a  fair  average.  A  knowledge  of  the  adaptability  of  a  fuel 
to  the  particular  type  of  producer  in  which  it  is  to  be  used  is  im- 
perative, since  a  producer  that  would  give  excellent  results  with 
one  kind  of  fuel  might  fail  completely  in  handling  another  kind. 
If  the  gas  is  to  be  used  in  gas  engines  or  for  many  kinds  of  metal- 
lurgical work,  the  amount  of  sulphur  in  the  fuel  must  be  very  low. 

§  152.    Condition. 

Coal  should  be  used  fresh,  or  carefully  stored  under  cover  to 
prevent  the  atmospheric  distillation  of  the  volatile  matter,  and 
it  will  always  be  found  poor  economy  to  use  coal  that  has  been 
stored  outside  and  subjected  to  climatic  changes.  When  used 
it  should  be  as  dry  as  possible  at  the  time  of  its  manufacture  into 
gas,  for  two  reasons: 

First,  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  heat,  which  otherwise  would 
be  required  to  evaporate  the  moisture.  Second,  to  prevent  con- 
densation or  chemical  combination  of  the  moisture  in  the  flue, 
which  would  precipitate  the  heavy  hydrocarbons. 

Where  wood  is  used  it  should  be  thoroughly  air  dried,  thus 

1  See  App.,  note  12. 
94 


FUEL.  95 

relieving  the  producer  of  the  evaporation  of  the  large  amount  of 
moisture  that  all  green  wood  contains. 

§  153.    Size  of  fuel. 

The  coal  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  uniform  in  size,  as  this 
will  make  level  fires  which  burn  evenly;  fine  dust  should  not  be 
used,  as  it  will  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  blast  through  the  fuel 
bed.  Neither  should  large  lumps  be  allowed,  as  they  will  require 
longer  burning  than  surrounding  material  and  this  causes  irregu- 
lar combustion,  some  parts  of  the  fuel  being  at  a  white  heat, 
while  large  masses  will  hardly  be  heated  through.  Air  and 
steam  soon  force  their  way  through  these  weak  spots  and  escape 
into  the  gas  space  above,  burning  both  coal  and  gas.  With  the 
use  of  coal  having  no  extremely  large  lumps,  the  repairs  and  de- 
lays, as  well  as  operating  expenses  of  the  gas-producer,  are  greatly 
lessened,  and  the  reliability  and  capacity  of  the  plant  are  greatly 
increased. 

Large  or  crooked  sticks  of  wood  should  never  be  placed  in  the 
producer,  and  the  sizes  of  all  pieces  should  be  such  as  to  form  a 
compact  and  uniform  bed  in  producer. 

§  154.    Coal. 

If  this  is  used,  it  should  be  of  good  quality,  rich  in  hydrogen, 
and  ought  to  have  a  low  percentage  of  ash,  which  should  not 
clinker  or  run  together  under  the  influence  of  heat.  Coals  which 
become  pasty  when  heated  should  not  be  used,  as  they  will  always 
give  trouble  in  the  producer.  Local  and  commercial  conditions 
will  determine  whether  anthracite  or  bituminous  coal  is  the  less 
expensive  in  first  cost,  but  the  type  of  producer  that  is  to  gasify 
the  coal  and  the  use  of  the  resulting  gas  will  be  the  final  criterion 
in  deciding  which  coal  is  the  cheaper. 

§  155.   Peat  and  lignite.     (B  308,  B  156,  B  146.) 

The  two  principal  difficulties  in  the  use  of  peat  and  lignite  are 
the  large  amounts  of  moisture  present  and  the  resistance  offered 
to  the  passage  of  gas  by  the  layer  of  fuel.  On  account  of  the 
latter  point  it  is  not  ordinarily  feasible  to  gasify  these  fuels  in  a 
suction  producer,  but  a  pressure  gas-producer  should  be  used  that 
is  capable  of  furnishing  a  higher  pressure  than  is  usually  used. 
These  fuels  have  been  used  extensively  in  Europe,  and  in  many 
cases  the  gas  has  been  used  in  gas  engines. 

It  would  be  very  desirable  to  have  the  producer  so  arranged 


96       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

that  the  gases  pre-heat  the  fuel  before  it  goes  on  to  the  fuel  bed 
proper.  This  would  remove  a  large  amount  of  the  moisture  in 
the  fuel,  cool  the  gas,  and  thus  conserve  the  sensible  heat  loss  and 
also  condense  a  large  amount  of  the  tar  carried  by  the  gas.  The 
producer  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  carry  this  condensed  tar 
down  into  the  incandescent  fuel  and  thus  break  the  former  up 
into  stable  compounds. 

It  is  not  generally  advisable  to  use  a  coke  scrubber  with  the 
usual  type  of  lignite  and  peat  producer,  since  the  coke  soon  fills 
up  with  tar;  a  simple  tower  provided  with  a  thorough  spraying 
and  sprinkling  device  is  used  in  place  of  the  coke.  If  the  gas- 
producer  were  built  on  the  lines  suggested  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph, the  tar  would  be  held  in  the  producer  and  the  problem 
of  scrubbing  would  then  be  much  simpler. 

§  156.   Brown  coal     (B  226,  B  182,  B  177.) 

Brown  coal  in  the  form  of  briquettes  has  been  used  to  a  limited 
extent  in  Germany.  Operating  producers  there  with  brown-coal 
briquettes  proves  in  many  cases  more  convenient  than  the  use  of 
anthracite.  There  is  almost  an  entire  absence  of  slag,  and  the 
fuel  bed  may  be  readily  cleaned.  The  fuel  bed  holds  the  fire 
very  well  and  when  once  blown  up  it  may  be  restarted  with  ease. 
The  coal  in  the  form  of  briquettes  is  clean,  easy  to  handle  and  to 
store;  several  plants  are  now  in  successful  operation  where  the 
gas  is  used  in  gas  engines. 

§  157.   Refuse.     (B  325,  B  328,  B  310.) 

Shavings,  sawdust,  straw,  bark,  and  similar  refuse  have  been 
successfully  gasified  in  the  Riche  gas-producer.  (See  §  264.) 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

REQUIREMENTS    OF    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  158.    Adaptability. 

The  adaptability  of  the  gas-producer  to  the  work  it  has  to  do 
is  one  of  its  most  important  requirements.  The  use  and  com- 
position of  the  gas,  nature  of  fuel,  method  of  operation,  economy 
required,  and  type  of  producer  —  all  are  factors  that  must  be 
co-ordinated  in  their  proper  relation,  in  order  to  secure  a  satis- 
factory producer-gas  plant.  The  proper  appreciation  of  this 
requirement,  in  its  broadest  sense,  by  designers  and  prospective 
users  of  gas-producers  is  imperative  in  order  to  insure  the  exten- 
sive development  of  the  gas-producer  in  America.  (See  §  87  and 
§  270.) 

§  159.    Construction  of  producer. 

It  should  be  compact  and  simple.  Parts  which  wear  or  burn 
out  rapidly  should  be  made  interchangeable  and  easily  renewable. 
Proper  provision  must  be  made  for  cleaning  all  parts  of  the 
apparatus. 

§  160.    Composition  of  gas. 

This  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  fuel,  method  of  operating 
producer,  and  use  of  gas.  In  all  cases,  the  amount  of  diluents 
should  be  kept  as  low  as  possible.  For  use  in  engines,  the  gas 
must  be  free  from  dirt,  tar,  or  condensible  constituents.  When 
the  gas  is  to  be  used  in  heating  furnaces,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
clean  it,  but  a  higher  heating  value  is  usually  desirable  than  is 
necessary  for  engine  use. 

§  161.    Automatic  feeding. 

This  will  always  be  desirable  and  should  always  be  used ;  it  may 
be  accomplished  by  mechanical  means  as  described  in  §  200,  or 
by  gravity  as  shown  in  Fig.  70. 

§  162.    Continuity  of  operation. 

In  all  cases  it  will  be  desirable  to  have  the  producer  able  to 

97 


98       A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

give  continuous  service;  in  fact,  for  some  classes  of  work,  conti- 
nuity of  operation  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  factors 
which  have  the  greatest  bearing  on  this  requirement  are  auto- 
matic feeding,  agitation  of  fuel  bed,  and  removal  of  ashes. 

§  163.    Agitation  of  fuel  bed. 

Mechanical  pokers  or  revolving,  swinging,  or  shaking  grates  are 
desirable  to  reduce  the  manual  labor  in  operating  the  producer. 
Any  one  of  the  above  devices  is  also  conducive  to  continuity  of 
operation. 

§  164.   Removal  of  ashes. 

For  the  continuous  and  satisfactory  operation  of  the  producer, 
it  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  ashes  may  be  removed  without 
interfering  with  the  process  of  gasification. 

§  165.   Deep  fuel  bed. 

The  fuel  bed  should  have  considerable  depth  to  insure  com- 
plete gasification  and  a  uniform  quality  of  gas.  In  the  suction 
type  of  gas-producer,  where  the  blast  velocity  is  low,  the  depth 
of  fuel  bed  must  not  be  too  great;  otherwise  the  negative  wrork 
of  drawing  the  air  and  steam  through  the  fuel  will  become  ex- 
cessive. (See  §  273.)  A  low-blast  velocity  necessitates  a  shallower 
fuel  bed  and  vice  versa.  With  high-blast  velocity,  a  deep  fuel 
bed  prevents  the  formation  of  least  resistance  channels  for  the 
blast,  which  would  result  in  localized  high  temperatures  and  a 
higher  percentage  of  CO2  in  the  gas. 

§  166.   Introduction  of  blast. 

The  steam  and  air  should  be  introduced  together,  as  they  will 
then  be  more  thoroughly  mixed.  They  should  be  introduced  at 
such  a  place  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  a  uniform 
distribution  through  the  fuel  bed.  The  zone  of  highest  tempera- 
ture should  be  kept  away  from  the  grates  and  walls  of  the  pro- 
ducer, thus  preventing  the  "burning  out"  of  the  former  and  the 
fusing  of  clinkers  to  the  latter.  Neither  should  the  blast  form 
channels  in  the  fuel  bed. 

§  167.    Cleanliness. 

The  producer  should  be  so  built  that  the  fuel  may  be  intro- 
duced without  spilling  and  the  ashes  removed  without  difficulty. 
All  joints  must  be  made  tight  to  prevent  leakage  of  the  gas  into 
the  producer  room.  This  is  of  more  importance  with  the  pressure 


REQUIREMENTS  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  99 

type  than  with  the  suction  type  of  producer.  In  case  of  leakage 
with  the  former,  the  gas  will  be  forced  into  the  producer  room 
and  thus  vitiate  the  atmosphere;  in  the  latter  case,  air  will  simply 
be  drawn  into  the  producer.  (See  Chapter  28.) 

§  168.    Ease  in  starting. 

With  producers  used  for  power  purposes,  it  is  important  that 
the  producer  may  be  easily  started  after  a  period  of  idleness. 
To  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  producer  so  constructed 
that  it  may  be  kept  air-tight  during  the  hours  of  idleness. 

§  169.    Regulation  of  steam  and  air. 

In  all  suction  gas-producers,  it  is  imperative  that  the  propor- 
tion of  steam  and  air  be  kept  constant,  although  the  load  may 
fluctuate  through  a  large  range  (§  208). 

§  170.   Heat  insulation. 

To  prevent  undue  loss  by  radiation,  the  producer  must  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  proper  non-conducting  material.  (See  §  27.) 

§  171.    Grate  efficiency. 

The  grate  or  fuel  support  must  be  designed  with  care  and  with 
special  reference  to  the  kind  of  fuel  to  be  used.  An  inefficient 
grate  may  cause  a  serious  loss  of  fuel  in  the  producer.  (See  §  139.) 

§  172.    Conservation  of  heat  energy. 

The  successful  producer  must  utilize  very  little  of  the  heat  in 
the  solid  fuel  in  the  process  of  gasification,  and  this  is  of  special 
importance  in  producers  used  for  power  purposes.  The  fuel 
should  be  pre-heated  by  means  of  the  sensible  heat  in  the  gas; 
this  dries  the  fuel  and  cools  the  gas  which  is  thereby  made  more 
desirable  for  use  in  an  engine.  The  steam  should  be  superheated 
and  the  air  pre-heated;  this  may  be  done  very  nicely  by  utilizing 
the  heat  in  the  exhaust  gases  of  the  engine  (see  §  214  and  §  216), 
and  thus  return  to  the  producer  about  10  per  cent  of  the  heat 
that  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  With  this  arrangement  a 
gas-producer  will  give  over  90  per  cent  efficiency. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

HISTORY   OF   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  173.    Chronological  record. 

The  following  chronological  record  gives  the  dates  of  the  early 
development  of  the  gas  industry. 

1669.  Thomas  Shirley  conducted  crude  experiments  with  car- 
bureted hydrogen. 

1691.     Coal  gas  distilled  by  Dean  Clayton. 

1726.  Stephen  Hales  in  England  pointed  out  that,  by  the  dis- 
tillation of  coal,  an  inflammable  gas  is  evolved. 

1788.  British  patent  issued  to  Robert  Gardiner  for  the  appli- 
cation of  waste  heat  of  furnaces  to  raising  steam,  by 
passing  the  heated  products  of  combustion  under  a 
boiler. 

1791.  John  Barber  took  out  a  patent  in  England  in  which  he 

proposed  to  use  "inflammable  air"  for  driving  an  en- 
gine and  for  metallurgical  operations. 

1792.  Manufacture  of  coal  gas  introduced  in  England  by  Mur- 

dock. 

1798.  Lebon  tried  to  make  gas  by  the  distillation  of  wood,  but 
his  apparatus  was  defective. 

1801.  Lampadius  (B  10)  proved  the  possibility  of  using  the 
waste  gases  escaping  in  the  carbonization  of  wood. 

1804.  Fourcroy  mentioned  the  separation  of  hydrogen  from 
water  when  the  latter  is  brought  in  contact  with  white 
hot  carbon. 

1809.  Aubertot  (B  9)  began  to  use  the  waste  gases  of  blast  fur- 
naces for  roasting  ores  and  burning  lime. 

1812.  Aubertot  (B  13)  secured  patent  on  furnaces  for  using  waste 
gases  of  blast  furnaces  for  roasting  ores. 

1814.  Aubertot  (B  9)  suggested  gas  furnaces  for  general  metal- 
lurgical work. 

100 


HISTORY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  101 

1814.  Berthier  published  paper  on  waste  gases  (B  14). 

1815.  First  oil  gas-producer  built  and  patented  in  England  by 

J.  Taylor. 
1817.     First  application  of  the  regenerative  principle  by  Stirling. 

1829.  Neilson  began  the  pre-heating  of  air  for  blast  furnaces. 

1830.  Invention  of  first  water-gas  generator. 

1830.  Lampadius  (B  16)  tried  to  cupel  silver  lead  by  means  of 

coal  gas. 

1831.  British  patent  issued  to  James  Slater  for  a  method  of 

utilizing  waste  heat.  This  is  an  ingenious  application 
of  the  same  principle  to  which,  in  a  great  measure,  the 
modern  regenerative  gas  furnace  owes  its  success. 

1833.  British  patent  issued  for  the  utilization  of  the  waste  heat 

from  blast  furnaces. 

1834.  In  Jern-Kontoret's  Annaler  there  is  given  a  drawing  of 

an  apparatus  for  pre-heating  the  blast  of  a  blast  fur- 
nace by  means  of  waste  gas  (B  8). 

1836.  Victor  Sire,  of  Cleval,  obtained  a  patent  for  the  manu- 

facture of  wrought  iron  by  means  of  waste  gases  from 
a  blast  furnace  (B  18). 

1837.  Wilhelm  von  Faber  du  Faur  applied  gases  to  puddling 

furnaces  (B  9). 

1837.  Furnace  for  the  use  of  pre-heated  air  designed  by  Slater. 

1838.  Ebelmen,  Thomas,  and  Laurens  (B  36)  conducted  experi- 

ments on  the  gasification  of  coal  in  France. 

1839.  Bischof  experimented  with  the  production  of  combustible 

gases  by  means  of  a  separate  producer  (B  9).  This 
producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 

1840.  Austrian  metallurgists  attempt  to  produce  combustible 

gases  by  the  imperfect  combustion  of  small  charcoal 
(B  19). 

1840.  Ebelmen  built  a  producer  at  the  iron  works  of  Audin- 

court  in  France  (B  9).     This  is  shown  in  Fig.  13. 

1841.  Karsten  pointed  out  the  advantages  of  the  gas-producer 

for  the  utilization  of  low-grade  fuels  (B  9). 

1842.  Heine   verified   and   amplified   the   deductions   made  by 

Karsten  in   1841    (B  9). 

1843.  In  Jern-Kontoret's  Annaler  there  is  a  drawing  of  Ekman's 

method  of  pre-heating  the  blast  by  means  of  waste 
heat. 


102     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

1847.  Regenerative  furnace  for  the  gasification  of  solid  fuel 
followed  by  the  burning  of  the  gas  in  a  chamber  with 
air  pre-heated  by  the  products  of  combustion;  designed 
and  patented  in  England. 

1850.  Jern-Kontoret's  Annaler  contained  drawings  of  Ekman's 
producer;  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  15. 

1856.  British  patent  granted  to  Frederick  Siemens  for  an  im- 
proved gas-furnace. 

1856.  Beaufume  producer  tried  by  the  French  Government. 

1857.  Charles   W.    Siemens   made    improvements    in    gas-fired 

furnaces. 

1858.  Turner  (B  22)  in  his  "  Eisenhuttenwessin  in  Schweden" 

published  an  extensive  report  of  the  workings  of  the 

Ekman  gas  furnace  and  gas-producer. 
1859. (?).  Wedding  producer  built  in  Berlin. 
1861.  Siemens  gas-producer  built. 

The  advent  of  the  Siemens  type,  which  was  the  first  producer 
that  was  commercially  successful,  was  the  real  starting  point  of 
the  modern  gas-producer  industry.  There  are  still  three  impor- 
tant points  in  the  development  of  the  gas-producer :  First,  the 
introduction  of  the  Dowson  gas-producer  in  1878,  which  was  the 
starting  point  of  the  modern  producer-gas  power  development; 
this  was  the  first  producer  that  was  successful  for  power  purposes. 
Second,  the  introduction  of  the  Mond  by-product  process  on  a 
large  scale  in  1889.  Third,  the  introduction  of  the  Benier  suc- 
tion gas-producer  in  1895,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the  use  of 
gas-producers  in  small  sizes  and  compact  units. 

§  174.  Early  use.  (B  14,  B  15,  B  39,  B  44.)  (See  App.,  note  13.) 
The  employment  of  waste  gases  from  iron  furnaces  or  other 
metallurgical  operations  was  one  of  the  first  steps  in  the  develop- 
ment of  gaseous  fuel.  The  chronological  record  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding section  shows  the  dates  of  the  early  experiments.  It  is 
quite  probable  that  the  first  producer  was  built  by  Bischof  in 
1839,  and  he  was  closely  followed  by  Ebelmen  in  1840,  whose 
producer  resembled  a  small  blast  furnace.  The  methods  of  both 
these  men  have  formed  the  basis  of  nearly  all  the  fuel-gas  systems 
that  have  since  been  used;  they  consisted  in  the  partial  combus- 
tion of  carbon  by  forcing  a  limited  supply  of  air  or  a  mixture 


HISTORY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  103 

of  air  and  steam  into  a  furnace  containing  the  solid  fuel  in  a  state 
of  combustion. 

§  175.    Conservatism  in  improvement. 

There  is  no  piece  of  apparatus  used  in  connection  with  modern 
industrial  work  that  has  undergone  so  few  actual  changes  and  real 
improvements  until  the  last  few  years  as  the  gas-producer. 
Until  recently,  one  found  in  general  use,  with  but  few  exceptions, 
the  same  form  of  producer  as  that  originally  constructed  some 
sixty-six  years  ago  —  a  cupola-shaped  furnace  provided  with 
some  form  of  stationary  grate  or  bed  below,  a  hand-operated 
coaling  hopper  above,  several  poke  holes  at  the  top  and  possibly 
one  at  the  side.  Broadly  speaking,  the  original  type  of  Bischof 
and  Ebelmen  represented  the  larger  part  of  recent  practice. 

From  the  foregoing  one  might  conclude  that  the  producer  has 
always  given  satisfaction  and  is  ideal  in  its  action.  But  experi- 
ence shows  that  this  is  not  the  case  ;  in  many  instances  the  pre- 
vailing form  of  producer  has  been  very  unsatisfactory,  especially 
when  fuel  economy  is  considered.  At  present  there  are  several 
industries  demanding  a  better  producer  than  most  manufacturers 
are  offering,  the  most  important  of  which  being  the  gas-engine 
industry. 

§  176.    Want  of  appreciation. 

While  the  production  and  utilization  of  gaseous  fuel  for  indus- 
trial purposes  were  demonstrated  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  last 
century,  yet  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  the  value  of  the 
gas-producer  is  beginning  to  be  appreciated  and  that  the  industry 
has  received  any  impetus  at  all.  Causes  for  this  lack  of  appre- 
ciation are  indicated  in  §§  88-90. 

§  177.    Bischof  producer. 

This  producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  11,  which  gives  all  the  general 
dimensions  of  same.  The  central  part  or  body  of  the  furnace  A, 
where  the  gases  are  generated,  is  cylindrical;  the  upper  part  B  and 
the  under  part  D  are  conical.  R  is  a  grate,  underneath  which 
is  an  ash  pit  E,  closed  by  an  iron  plate  F.  An  opening  immedi- 
ately above  the  grate  is  arranged  to  be  closed  by  an  iron  door  G; 
S  is  a  damper  in  the  delivery  flue.  The  throat  of  the  producer 
is  separated  from  the  body  by  a  damper  C,  and  the  top  is  closed 
by  an  iron  lid  P.  The  volume  included  between  C  and  P  is  suf- 
ficient to  hold  one  charge  of  the  fuel  with  which  the  producer  is 


104     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

charged  at  intervals;  by  moving  C,  when  P  is  closed,  the  charge 
of  fuel  can  be  introduced  through  the  throat  without  any  escape 


FIG.  11.  —  BISCHOF  PRODUCER. 


of  gas.     The  air  required  for  combustion  enters  through  several 
apertures  in  the  plate  F;  these  are  so  arranged  that  their  areas 


HISTORY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


105 


can  be  increased  or  diminished.  The  progress  of  combustion  is 
under  control  by  means  of  the  damper  and  the  apertures  referred 
to,  and  can  be  observed  through  the  holes  0,  which,  when  not 
in  use,  are  closed  by  brick  stoppers. 

When  the  producer  is  working  properly,  its  interior,  as  viewed 
through  the  lowest  hole,  should  appear  incandescent;  at  the 
middle  hole  the  action  should  be  less  intense,  and  at  the  upper 
hole  no  signs  of  ignition  should  be  visible.  When  the  latter  is 
not  the  case,  there  is  much  danger  that  the  CO2  will  be  excessive. 
In  order  to  diminish  this  trouble,  the  fuel  bed  should  be  increased 
in  thickness  and  possibly  the  amount  of  air  should  be  decreased. 
No  blast  is  used  and  the  draft  is  produced  by  the  furnace  which 
the  producer  supplies. 


FIG.  12.  —  EBELMEN  GAS-PRODUCER. 

§  178.   Ebelmen's  producers.     (B  2,  B  3,  B  39,  B  214.) 

Ebelmen  designed,  built,  and  operated  three  types  of  gas-pro- 
ducers at  the  iron  works  of  Audincourt,  France.  The  first  of 
these  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  12,  which  shows  the  application  of 
the  producer  to  a  puddling  furnace.  A  is  the  ash  chamber 
into  which  the  blast  is  introduced;  it  then  passes  up  through 
the  grates  B  and  into  the  fuel  above.  Steam  is  admitted 
at  C.  D  is  the  charging  hopper.  E  is  the  furnace  in  which 
the  gas  is  burned,  the  air  for  combustion  being  pre-heated  by 


106     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

passing  through  the  pipes  G  and  then  .introduced  into  the  fur- 
nace at  F. 


FIG.  13.  —  EBELMEN  PRODUCER. 


The  blast-furnace  type  of  producer  is  illustrated   in  Fig.  13. 
It  is  worked  with  a  blast  of  air  which  enters  at  F.     In  general 


HISTORY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


107 


outline  it  resembles  a  small  blast  furnace.  C  is  a  cast-iron  pipe 
which  descends  from  the  throat  into  the  body  of  the  furnace  and 
which  is  kept  constantly  filled  with  fuel;  at  Audincourt  the  fuel 
was  small  charcoal.  A  lid  is  necessary  only  when  large  lumps  of 
fuel  are  used,  the  small  pieces  offering  sufficient  resistance  to  the 
passage  of  the  gases  which  find  a  free  passage  from  the  body  of 
the  furnace  D,  up  and  through  B,  and  out  into  the  flue  A.  E  is 
the  hearth  of  the  furnace  into  which  the  blast  is  introduced. 
About  1J  parts  by  volume  of  iron-furnace  slag  and  clay  are 


FIG.  14.  —  EBELMEN  GAS-PRODUCER. 

charged  into  the  furnace  with  every  100  parts  of  combustible; 
this  forms  an  easily  fusible  slag  with  the  ash,  which  can  then  be 
run  off  from  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  E.  In  the  operation  of  this 
producer,  the  condensation  of  the  tarry  vapors  in  the  flue  A  was 
a  source  of  constant  trouble  when  uncharred  fuel  was  used  in 
the  producer. 

The  down-draft  type  of  producer  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  14.     A  is 
the  main  chamber  of  the  producer;  this  is  connected  with  B  by 


108     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

means  of  C.     Raw  or  fresh  fuel  is  delivered  to  A,  and  B  is  filled 
with  incandescent  carbon.     The  blast  is  admitted  at  D,  passes 


FIG.  15.  —  EKMAN  PRODUCER. 


through  C  and  up  through  B;  in  this  way  the  air  is  drawn  down 
through  the  fuel  in  A.     E  is  the  lid  for  the  chamber  A  and  is 


HISTORY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


109 


fitted  with  an  arrangement  to  regulate  the  amount  of  air  passing 
through.     The  object  of  this  type  of  producer  was  to  break  up 


FIG.  16.  —  BEAUFUME  PRODUCER. 

the  tar  and  other  hydrocarbons  in  the  gas.     The  original  draw- 
ings show  a  small  blast  pipe  at  F,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that 


110     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCFR-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

steam  was  introduced  at  this  point,  although  no  mention  is  made 
of  it  in  the  original  description. 

'  / 


'/////////////////////////// A//// ///////////// 
FIG.  17.  —  WEDDING  PRODUCER. 

§  179.    Ekman  producer.     (B  15.) 

This  producer  was  designed  by  Gustaf  Ekman  and  was  used  at 
the  Ekman  Iron  Works  in  Sweden  for  reheating   slabs  of  iron. 


HISTORY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  Ill 

Its  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  D  is  the  body  of  the  pro- 
ducer into  which  the  fuel  is  charged  by  means  of  hopper  A  and 
sliding  damper  B.  C  is  a  lever  for  operating  B.  The  inside  of 
the  producer  is  lined  with  firebrick  and  the  body  of  the  producer 
is  inclosed  within  a  cast-iron  jacket;  a  free  annular  space  is  left 
between  them.  The  blast  enters  at  F  and  then  passes  into  the 
producer  through  the  tuyeres  E;  the  object  of  the  annular  space  H 
is  to  pre-heat  the  blast  and  also  to  reduce  the  radiation  loss. 
The  interior  of  the  producer  could  be  examined  by  removing 
the  plugs  G.  K  is  the  ash  pit,  the  ashes  being  removed  by  means 
of  the  door  J.  The  object  of  the  ledge  I  is  to  prevent  the  entire 
mass  of  fuel  from  falling  or  sliding  down  while  the  ashes  are  being 
removed.  L  is  the  flue  leading  to  the  furnace  where  the  pro- 
ducer-gas is  burned.  Wood  charcoal  was  the  fuel  used  in  this 
producer. 

§  180.    Beaufume  producer.     (B  8,  B  9,  B  39.) 

This  producer  was  tried  by  the  French  Government  at  the 
Imperial  Arsenal  at  Cherbourg,  and  it  is  shown  in  Fig.  16.  A  is 
the  cover  to  the  charging  hopper.  C  is  a  bell  which  is  connected 
to  a  counterweight  by  means  of  link  B.  E  is  the  flue  leading  to 
the  furnace  and  D  is  a  pipe  communicating  with  the  atmosphere. 
G  is  the  fuel  bed,  which  is  about  24  inches  deep,  and  this  is  sup- 
ported on  the  grate  bars  H.  The  blast  enters  the  ash  pit  /  through 
pipe  «/,  then  passes  up  through  the  fuel  into  the  space  F,  then  out 
into  E.  The  entire  producer  is  surrounded  by  the  water  jacket. 

§  181.    Wedding  producer.     (B  15.) 

This  producer  was  in  use  at  the  Mint  tmd  Royal  Porcelain 
Manufactory  at  Berlin  prior  to  1861.  (See  preface  to  Percy's 
Metallurgy,  vol.  on  Fuel,  also  p.  517  therein.)  It  is  shown  in 
Fig.  17.  A  is  the  door  to  the  charging  chamber  B.  The  fuel  is 
dropped  into  the  body  of  the  producer  F  by  means  of  the  sliding 
damper  C,  which  is  operated  by  handle  D.  E  is  the  flue  leading 
to  the  furnace.  G  and  H  are  grate  bars.  I  and  J  are  doors  for 
gaining  access  to  the  ash-pit  L.  K  is  a  pipe  through  which  the 
blast  enters. 

§  182.    Siemens  producer. 

This  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  A  is  a  self-closing  hopper  for  charg- 
ing the  producer  with  fuel.  B  is  the  apron  wall  composed  of 
brick  resting  on  a  cast-iron  plate  C.  D  is  a  grate  composed  of 


112     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

horizontal  flat  bars.      E  is  an  opening  for  cleaning  or  poking  the 
fire  or  testing  the  gas.     F  is  a  cleaning  and  explosion  door. 

The  gas  leaves  the  producer  through  the  brick  uptake  G,  iron- 
cooling  tube  H,  and  iron  downtake  /;  it  then  goes  to  the  furnace 
through  the  flue  J.  K  is  a  tar  well  that  catches  the  tar  con- 
densed in  the  tube.  The  action  of  the  cooling  tube  is  as  follows: 
The  temperature  of  the  gas  as  it  leaves  the  producer  is  about 
400  degrees  C.;  this  is  cooled  to  about  100  degrees  C.,  thus  decreas- 


FIG.  18.  —  SIEMENS  GAS-PRODUCER. 

ing  the  volume  and  increasing  the  density  of  the  gas,  thereby 
making  the  volume  of  gas  in  7  heavier  than  that  in  G.  As  a  re- 
sult, a  current  is  produced  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  and  a 
draft  is  established  in  the  producer. 

The  cooling  tube  is  a  very  cumbersome  means  for  inducing  the 
draft  in  the  producer,  and  this  now  is  always  dispensed  with  and 
a  positive  blast  is  introduced  in  the  ash  pit,  which  is  enclosed. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

AMERICAN    PRESSURE    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  183.    Taylor  -fluxing  gas-producer.     (B  24.) 

This  producer  was  designed  about  1878  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Taylor, 
for  use  in  his  ore-roasting  kilns  at  Chester,  N.  J.  It  has  the 
general  lines  of  a  blast  furnace,  with  the  following  dimensions: 
The  hearth  is  24  in.  diameter  and  24  in.  high.  The  bosh  wall 
makes  an  angle  of  25  degrees  from  the  vertical,  and  enlarges  to 
4  ft.  diameter;  then  it  is  drawn  in  to  3  ft.  at  the  top,  the  total 
height  being  12  ft. 

The  blast  enters  through  a  IJ-in.  nozzle  which  is  placed  in  a 
water-coil  tuyere  12  in.  above  the  bottom.  The  blast  is  produced 
by  a  small  Weimer  blowing  engine  which  furnishes  300  cu.  ft. 
of  air  per  minute  at  a  pressure  of  1J  Ib.  per  square  inch.  The 
producer  consumes  about  200  Ib.  of  coal  per  hour  and  1J  h.  p.  is 
required  to  blow  it.  The  ashes  are  fluxed  out  about  every  two 
hours.  Cinders  and  limestone  are  charged  in  with  the  coal  and 
thus  act  as  fluxes. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  producer  were: 

(1)  Uniform  quality  of  gas  and  low  per  cent  of  C02. 

(2)  There  was  no  cleaning  of  ashes;  the  producer  was  kept  in 
continuous  operation  for  at  least  four  weeks. 

(3)  The  quantity  of  gas  from  this  producer  could  be  increased 
by  simply  increasing  the  amount  of  air  entering  it. 

§  184.    Langdon  gas-producer.     (B  35.) 

This  producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  19,  and  it  was  designed  for  use  at 
the  Taylor  ore-roasting  furnace  at  Chester,  N.  J.  The  producer 
is  built  on  the  general  lines  of  a  blast  furnace,  and  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  cylindrical  furnace,  enclosed  in  an  iron  jacket  or  casing, 
having  a  bosh  or  inverted  cone-shaped  base.  The  fuel  is  charged 
in  through  the  bell  and  hopper  at  the  top.  The  producer  is 
cleaned  by  means  of  the  small  door  placed  at  the  hearth  level, 

113 


114     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

which,  in  order  to  facilitate  cleaning,  is  elevated  above  the  floor. 
The  door  can  be  removed,  and  when  closed  is  held  tightly  against 
its  frame  by  means  of  lugs. 


FIG.  19.  — SECTION  OF  LANGDON  GAS-PRODUCER. 

The  blast  is  furnished  by  air  and  steam  which  is  injected  into 
the  fuel  through  a  series  of  tuyeres  underneath  the  bosh.  A 
small  flue  also  connects  the  door  passages  with  the  blast  pipe, 
and  a  portion  of  the  blast  entering  in  this  way  prevents  the  doors 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


115 


FIG.  20.  —  SECTION  OF  FUEL 
GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  ENGIN- 
EERING Co.  ;s  GAS-PRODUCER. 


116     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

from   becoming   warped   and   overheated.     The   gases    pass    off 
through  the  flue  at  one  side  near  the  top. 

In  cleaning,  the  fuel  in  the  upper  part  of  the  producer  is  held 
by  the  sloping  walls  of  the  bosh  while  the  ash  below  is  removed. 
Anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  and  coke  dust  have  been  used 
successfully  in  this  producer. 

§  185.    Fuel  Gas  and  Electric  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd.,  Producer. 

This  producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  20;  it  was  used  by  the  above 
company  for  the  manufacture  of  fuel  gas. 

Fig.  20  represents  a  vertical  section.  The  shell  is  20  ft.  high, 
9  ft.  outside  diameter,  and  the  diameter  inside  the  lining  is  6  ft. 
The  producer  has  large  cleaning  and  ash-pit  doors  on  both  sides- 
opposite  each  other  in  order  to  facilitate  cleaning. 

In  order  to  get  a  gas  low  in  carbonic  acid,  a  much  larger  depth 
of  fuel  was  used.  As  it  would  be  impossible  to  poke  such  a  deep 
fire  by  hand,  a  pneumatic  rammer  was  placed  upon  the  producer. 
This  rammer  consists  of  a  cast-iron  ring,  so  constructed  that  it 
will  not  only  exert  a  pressure  upon  the  coal  but  also  force  the 
coal  to  the  periphery  of  the  producer,  which  is  desired  because 
the  gas  has  a  tendency  to  creep  up  along  the  walls.  The  ring  is 
raised  by  air  pressure  and  allowed  to  fall  upon  the  fuel,  the  stroke 
given  depending  upon  the  blow  necessary  to  make  the  fuel  sink 
regularly. 

Steam  is  admitted  under  the  grate,  and  both  air  and  steam 
are  controlled  by  valves  from  the  top  of  the  producer. 

This  producer  gasified  from  12  to  15  tons  of  coal  in  24  hours. 

The  carbonic  acid  in  the  gas  was  sometimes  as  low  as  1.4  per  cent. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  gas,  at  a  pressure  of  four 
inches  of  water: 


CO2  

3  4% 

CH4  

.   3  1% 

H  

•   9.2% 

C2H4  

8% 

CO.. 

..23  .3% 

The  remainder  was  mainly  nitrogen. 

§186.    Kitson  gas-producer.     (B  90,  B  131.) 

This  producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  21.     The  grate  is  connected  on 
one  side  with  a  steam  and  air  injector;  on  the  other,  with  the 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


117 


gas-supply  pipe,  which  runs  to  the  place  of  consumption  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  cast-iron  box  securely  attached  to  the  cylindrical 


FIG.  21.  —  SECTION  OF  KITSON  GAS-PRODUCER. 

shell,  forming  the  ash  pit.     The  whole  machine  is  supported  on 
four  cast-iron  legs. 


118     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

The  ash  box  terminates  in  a  mouthpiece  which  is  opened  and 
closed  with  a  valve  operated  by  a  lever  from  the  outside;  the 
mouthpiece  thus  serves  to  dump  the  ashes,  whenever  desirable, 
without  interfering  with  the  process  of  making  the  gas.  A  small 
reservoir  forming  the  boiler  is  placed  on  one  side  and  communi- 
cating therewith  are  two  coils  contained  in  the  brickwork.  The 
lower  coil  heats  the  water  and  furnishes  steam,  and  the  upper  coil 
superheats  it. 

Air  channels  are  arranged  spirally  in  the  brickwork,  through 
which  air  is  drawn  by  the  injectors.  The  air  thus  becomes  heated 
before  mixing  with  the  steam,  which  must  be  thoroughly  dry. 

The  grate  is  provided  with  a  mechanism  for  giving  it  a  rotary 
and  up-and-down  motion,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  break  up  any 
clinker  that  may  have  adhered  to  the  sides  of  the  furnace,  to  keep 
the  coal  in  a  compact  mass,  avoiding  holes  in  the  fuel,  and  to 
throw  the  dust  and  ash  into  the  ash  pit.  The  coking  with  soft 
coal  is  effectively  broken  up,  and  the  steam  finds  an  easy  passage 
through  it. 

The  following  is  an  explanation  of  Fig.  21:  A  ash  pit,  B  fire- 
brick hearth  or  grate,  C  air-passage  ways  for  heating  air  supplied 
to  injectors,  D  injector  pipes  leading  to  center  of  grate,  E  and  H 
screw  and  hub  for  giving  grate  the  rotary  and  up-and-down 
motion,  F  furnace,  G  vertical  grate  bars,  /  steam  boiler,  J  hot- 
water  coils  connecting  with  boiler,  K  superheating  steam  coils 
communicating  with  boiler,  L  dust  valve,  M  injectors,  N  hopper 
to  supply  coal  to  furnace,  0,  P,  Q  mechanism  for  rotating  grate, 
R  gas  take-off  pipe,  S  water  seal,  T  butterfly  valve  for  dumping 
ashes. 

§  187.   American  Furnace  and  Machine  Co.'s  producer. 

Fig.  22  is  a  vertical  section  on  line  CD.  Fig.  23  is  a  vertical 
section  on  line  AB.  Fig.  24  is  a  horizontal  section  on  line  EF. 
The  producer  consists  of  a  cylindrical  body  with  charging  hopper 
above,  sloping  grates  and  water-sealed  ash  pit  below.  Two 
blowers  are  used  for  furnishing  the  blast,  which  is  admitted  under 
the  grates  as  shown  in  Fig.  22. 

§  188.    Amsler  gas-producer. 

The  construction  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  25.  A  is  the  pro- 
ducer body  with  the  usual  charging  hopper  B  and  gas  outlet  C. 
D  are  poke  holes  for  stirring  the  fuel  in  A.  E  is  a  steam  blower 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


119 


which  drives  the  blast  through  F  into  G  and  up  through  cone  H. 
I  is  the  water-seal  ash  pit. 

§  189.    The  Swindell  gas-producer. 

The  principal  features  of  this  producer  are  shown  in  Fig.  26, 


FIG.   22.  —  AMERICAN  FURNACE 
AND  MACHINE  Co.'s  PRODUCER. 


FIG.   23.  —  AMERICAN    FURNACE 
AND  MACHINE  Co.'s  PRODUCER. 


FIG.  24.  —  AMERICAN  FURNACE 
AND  MACHINE  Co.'s  PRODUCER. 


which  is  a  vertical  section;  Fig.  27,  which  is  an  elevation;  and  Fig. 
28;  which  is  a  horizontal  section.     There  are  two  sloping  grates, 


120     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

G,  Fig.  26,  located  centrally,  with  a  body  of  coal  between  them, 
so  as  to  secure  the  full  working  capacity  of  the  grate  surfaces. 


FIG.  25.  —  SECTION  OF  AMSLER  GAS-PRODUCER. 

The  starting  and  cleaning  door  C  is  located  at  the  lowest  point 
at  the  water-seal  line.  The  water-seal  pan  AP  has  a  width  equal 
to  that  of  the  grates  and  a  length  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the 
jacket.  It  is  divided  into  two  sections,  so  that  the  ashes  may  be 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


121 


removed  at  both  ends  conveniently.  The  steam  pipes  S  extend 
over  the  whole  length  of  the  grates  and  are  so  arranged  that  the 
current  of  steam  is  directed  toward  the  center  of  the  body  of 
coal  instead  of  toward  the  walls.  This  is  done  to  avoid  the  for- 
mation of  clinkers.  The  gas  neck  is  located  at  the  highest  point 
of  the  chamber  so  that  there  is  no  dead  space  for  the  accumula- 
tion of  gas.  This  gas  neck  has  a  cleaning  stopper  hole  at  the 
top  and  a  cleaning  door  at  its  end.  By  shutting  off  the  gas  main 
by  the  damper  plate  SD,  any  producer  of  a  battery  in  operation 
can  be  cleaned  without  stopping  the  operation. 


FIG.  26.  —  SWINDELL  GAS-PRODUCER. 


Two  coal  hoppers,  H,  are  provided  to  effect  an  easy  and  even 
distribution  of  the  coal  over  the  whole  area  of  the  grates.  The 
tongue  of  these  hoppers  is  hollow  at  the  back  so  as  to  avoid  the 
over-heating  and  consequent  warping  which  causes  leaky  joints. 
There  are  four  ball  poke  holes  in  the  roof  and  two  stopper  poke 
holes  in  the  top  plates  of  the  hoppers,  so  that  every  part  of  the 
coal  pile  in  the  chamber  is  within  easy  reach  of  the  operator. 
Since  the  gas  chamber  has  a  brick  roof,  the  top  of  the  producer 
is  protected  against  excessive  heat. 

§  190.    The  Porter  gas-producer. 
This  producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  29.     It  consists,  in  the  main,  of  a 


122     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


DDDDDDDDDDDDDODO 
DDODDDGCDCDDDCDD 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


123 


circular  body  A,  with  gas  outlet  B  on  the  side,  and  a  cast-iron 
plate  containing  the  usual  hopper  C,  and  poke  holes  D  on  top. 


FIG.  29.  —  SECTION  OF  FORTER-MILLER  GAS-PRODUCER. 

The  shell  and  lining  are  supported  by  four  cast-iron  columns  E, 
which  rest  on  the  foundation  of  the  producer.     A  conical  ash 


124     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

hopper  F,  made  of  heavy  steel  plates  and  calked  air-tight,  is 
suspended  from  the  bottom  of  the  shell  and  extends  a  few  inches 
below  top  of  ash  pan,  thus  forming  a  water  seal  with  the  water 
contained  in  the  pan. 


FIG.  30.  —  SMYTHE  GAS-PRODUCER. 

At  its  upper  end,  the  ash  hopper  is  provided  with  a  wind  box 
G  adapted  to  receive  grate  sections  H.  A  number  of  air-tight 
doors  /  are  located  in  the  wind  box,  through  which  the  grate 
sections  can  be  inserted  or  removed.  These  doors,  when  open, 
give  access  to  the  fuel  bed  through  the  grate  sections,  so  that 
clinkers  that  might  accumulate  on  the  grates  can  easily  be  re- 
moved from  the  outside.  A  row  of  poke  holes  J,  just  above  the 
wind  box,  give  additional  facilities  for  removing  heavy  clinkers. 

The  air  necessary  for  gasification  and  partial  combustion  is 
delivered  into  the  wind  box  by  steam  blower  K,  and  enters  the 
fuel  through  the  circumferential  grates.  A  third  steam  blower  L 
delivers  air  through  a  centrally  located  vertical  pipe  M,  covered 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


125 


with  a  cone-shaped  hood  N,  to  the  center  of  the  fuel  bed.  The 
fuel  is  supported  on  a  bed  of  ashes  which  rests  in  a  pan  below  the 
hopper. 

§  191.    Smythe  gas-producer. 

The  construction  of  this  producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  30.  It  con- 
sists of  a  circular  body  A,  charging  hopper  B,  cast-iron  top  with 
poke  holes  C,  gas  exit  D,  and  inclined  grate  E.  The  steam  is 
introduced  at  a  higher  point  than  usual  and  acts  directly  on  the 
incandescent  mass  of  coal. 

§  192.    Duff  gas-producer. 
The  construction  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  31,  which  is  a  section 


FIG.  31.  —  DUFF  GAS-PRODUCER. 

on  line  AB;  Fig.  32,  which  is  a  section  on  line  CD;  and  Fig.  33, 
which  is  a  section  on  line  EF.  The  main  features  are  embodied 
in  the  following  patent  claims,  given  verbatim: 

1.  "A   gas-producer    provided    with    a    water-sealed    bottom 
trough  and  a  casing  located  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  producer 
provided  with  an  inlet  for  air  from  the  blower  and  with  a  cover 
of  gratings  inclined  from  the  sides  of  the  casing  upward  to  a 
middle  angular  ridge,  and  free  spaces  between  the  said  casing 
and  the  sides  of  the  producer  for  the  residues  to  pass  from  the 
gratings  of  the  said  casing  to  the  water  trough." 

2.  "A  gas-producer  of   rectangular  section   provided  with  a 
water-sealed   bottom  trough  and  a  transverse  casing  extending 


126     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

from  side  to  side  of  the  producer  across  the  center  thereof,  the 
said  casing  being  provided  with  an  inlet  for  air  from  the  blower 
and  with  a  cover  having  vertical  openings  therein,  said  cover 
being  inclined  upward  from  its  opposite  sides  between  the  casing 
and  the  sides  of  the  producer." 

3.  "A  bottom  casing  or  chamber  into  which  a  blast  of  air 
and  steam  is  delivered;  a  top  or  cover  for  this  casing  or  chamber 
consisting  of  outwardly  inclined  gratings  having  openings  to  dis- 
tribute the  blast  under  the  bed  of  the  fuel  and  forming  also  guid- 
ing surfaces  down  which  the  residue  ashes  will  slide  towards  the 


FIG.  32.  —  DUFF  GAS-PRODUCER. 


Section  E  F 

FIG.  33.  —  DUFF  GAS-PRODUCER. 


exterior  of  the  producer,  and  free  spaces  between  the  lower  edges 
of  the  inclined  gratings  and  the  walls  of  the  producer  through 
which  the  ashes  will  descend  into  the  water  trough  which  seals 
the  bottom  of  the  producer,  and  from  which  trough  the  removal 
of  the  ashes  is  effected  without  making  any  opening  into  the 
producer  and  without  interruption  of  the  air  blast." 

§  193.    Taylor  gas-producer. 

This  producer  was  designed  as  a  result  of  extensive  experi- 
ments covering  about  twelve  years,  conducted  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Taylor 
in  connection  with  his  ore-roasting  kilns  at  Chester  Furnace, 
N.  J.  It  is  shown  in  Fig.  34  and  35. 

The  type  illustrated  in  Fig.  35,  with  a  revolving  bottom 
and  shell  lined  with  firebrick,  is  that  usually  adopted  for  an- 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS.  127 

thracite   and   a  good   quality  of   bituminous  coal.     For  bitumi- 
nous coals  liable  to  clinker,    the  design  with   the   water   jacket 


FIG.  34.  —  SECTION  OF  TAYLOR  GAS-PRODUCER. 

shown  in  Fig.  34  is  used.     The  clinker  will  not  adhere  so  readily 
to  the  smooth  sides  of  the  water  jacket  as  to  firebrick,  and  the 


128     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

former   is  not   liable   to  injury  when  poke   bars  are  used  from 
above. 


FIG.  35.  —  SECTION  OF  TAYLOR  GAS-PRODUCER.  . 

The  distinguishing  features  of  the  producer  are  as  follows: 
The  maintenance  of  a  deep  fuel  bed  carried  on  a  deep  bed  of 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


129 


ashes.     Blast  carried  by  conduit  through  the  ashes  to  the  incan- 
descent fuel. 


FIG.  36.  —  SECTION  OF  WOOD  DOUBLE-BOSH  GAS-PRODUCER. 

The  revolving  bottom,  the  turning  of  which  will  produce  a 
grinding  action  in  the  lower  part  of  the  fuel  bed,  and  thus  close 
up  any  channels  that  may  have  been  formed  by  the  blast,  in  this 


130     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS 

way  keeping  the  CO2  in  the  gas  low.     A  few  turns  of  the  crank 
at  frequent  intervals  will  keep  the  fuel  bed  solid. 

§  194.    Wood  double-bosh  gas-producer. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  36.     The  special  feature  is  its  double 


FIG.  37.  —  SECTION  OF  WOOD  WATER-SEAL  GAS-PRODUCER. 

bosh.  The  air  entering  the  blast  pipe,  which  protrudes  through 
the  bosh  plate,  passes  to  the  vertical  central  air  conduit  and  cir- 
culates also  about  the  inner  boshes.  These  are  perforated,  per- 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


131 


mitting  the  passage  of  the  air  into  the  ash  bed,  taking  up  its 
heat  and  insuring  checking  the  escape  of  combustible  matters 
in  the  ash. 

This  type,  equipped  with  the  Bildt  automatic  feed  as  shown, 
has  given  excellent  service  with  the  lignite  coals  of  the  West. 


r\ 


FIG.  38.  —  WOOD  FLAT-GRATE  GAS-PRODUCER, 

§  195.    Wood  water-seal  gas-producer. 

This  is  shown  in  Fig.  37,  where  A  is  the  body  of  the  producer, 
B  the  coal-feeding  hopper,  and  C  the  gas  exit.     D  is  a  steam 


132      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

blower  that  forces  the  blast  through  and  around  the  cone  E. 
F  are  poke  holes,  and  G  is  the  water-seal  ash  pit.  H  are  balanced 
poking  bars,  six  being  placed  on  the  top  of  the  producer. 

§  196.    Wood  flat-grate  gas-producer. 

The  construction  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  38  and  39,  the  latter 
being  a  horizontal  section  through  line  AB  of  the  former. 

§  197.    Wood  single-bosh  water-seal  gas-producer. 
The  construction  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  40. 


FIG.  39.  —  SECTION  OF  WOOD  FLAT- 
GRATE  GAS-PRODUCER. 

§  198.    Wellman  gas-producer. 

This  is  shown  in  Fig.  41.  It  is  a  modified  form  of  the  old 
Siemens  type,  with  a  steam  blast  attachment.  It  is  intended 
primarily  to  be  used  in  connection  with  a  heating  furnace.  A 
is  the  body  of  the  producer  with  charging  hopper  B  and  exit  C. 
D  is  the  grate  over  ash  pit  E.  F  is  the  blast  pipe. 

§  199.    The  Fraser-Talbot  gas-producer. 

In  the  design  and  mode  of  operation  this  producer  is  radically 
different  from  any  other  type. 

In  some  cases  rotary  or  revolving  bottoms  have  been  intro- 
duced with  a  view  to  facilitate  the  discharge  of  the  ashes  and  to 
provide  for  a  greater  capacity  for  gasifying  the  coal ;  the  continued 
demand  for  a  mechanical  producer  has  led  to  the  development 
of  this  type. 

The  producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  42  and  43.     It  consists  of  a 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


133 


cylindrical  shell  or  casing  riveted    to    four  /-beam  columns  C, 
which  rest  upon  foundations  and  support  the  shell  and  operating 


^WJ&W«^ 


FIG.  40.  —  WOOD  SINGLE-BOSH  WATER-SEAL  GAS-PRODUCER. 

machinery.  It  is  not  connected  in  any  way  to  the  building  in 
which  it  is  placed.  To  the  lower  part  of  the  shell  is  attached  a 
conical  cast-iron  fire  pot  D,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is  covered 


134      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

by  water  in  a  concrete  ash  pan  E,  therefore  forming  a  water  seal. 
In  the  center  of  this  ash  pan  is  a  hollow  cylindrical  column  Ff 
terminating  at  its  upper  end  in  a  cone.  The  annular  space 
between  the  edge  of  the  cone  and  the  cylinder  and  the  opening 
in  the  top  cone,  which  is  protected  by  the  circular  flange,  form 


FIG.  41.  —  WELLMAN  GAS-PRODUCER. 

outlets  for  the  blast,  which  is  conveyed  to  the  central  column  F 
by  means  of  a  circular  inlet  pipe  G  on  one  side  of  the  producer. 
This  inlet  pipe  is  provided  with  a  force  blower,  preferably  of  the 
injector  type. 

The  cone  forms  a  bearing  for  the  vertical  water-cooled  shaft 
H,  to  which  are  connected  two  water-cooled  arms  /,  one  arm 
being  inclined  at  the  angle  shown  and  the  other  arm  extending 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


135 


in  a  horizontal  direction  and  at  right  angles  to  the  shaft.  The 
combination  of  the  shaft  and  the  arms  forms  a  mechanical  stirrer 
or  agitator. 


FIG.  42.  —  SECTION  OF  FRASER-TALBOT  GAS-PRODUCER. 

The  shaft  H  has  a  combination  of  rotating  and  vertical  motions, 
which  are  effected  by  means  of  gearing  connecting  the  shaft  to 


136      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

an  electric  motor  ,7.     This  motor  and  the  gearing  are  carried 
on  a  steel  platform  riveted  to  the  tops  of  the  supporting  columns 


FIG.  43.  —  ELEVATION  OF  FRASER-TALBOT 
GAS-PRODUCER. 

C,  and  braced  to  them.     The  gearing  for  giving  the  shaft  the 
rotary  and  vertical  motions  is  of  an  exceptionally  heavy  design, 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS.  137 

and  in  general  consists  of  a  train  of  spur  gears  reducing  the  mo- 
tion from  the  electric  motors  to  a  worm  wheel,  which  is  connected 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  H  by  means  of  a  feather  and  groove. 
The  latter  provide  for  the  vertical  motion  of  the  shaft,  which  is 
effected  by  means  of  two  cranks  on  a  horizontal  shaft  directly 
over  the  vertical  shaft.  These  cranks  are  connected  to  a  cross 
head  K  by  means  of  connecting  rods  L.  The  cross  head  is  con- 
nected to  the  vertical  shaft  by  means  of  two  collars,  between 
which  is  placed  a  powerful  spiral  spring. 

The  arrangement  of  gearing  is  such  that  the  vertical  shaft  has 
a  slow  rotating  and  vertical  movement,  and  if  at  any  time  the 
shaft  should  become  jammed  against  an  excessively  large  and 
hard  clinker  the  vertical  motion  will  cease  automatically  until 
the  arm  which  is  in  contact  with  the  clinker  moves  through  a 
segment  of  a  circle  past  the  clinker,  when  it  will  be  forced  down 
into  its  proper  position  by  the  spring.  This  allows  a  slight 
elasticity  in  the  movement  of  the  shaft  and  will  prevent  the 
breakage  of  the  arm.  ,  As  a  further  safeguard,  a  slip  clutch  is 
placed  on  one  of  the  gear  wheels.  In  practice  it  is  found  that 
the  combined  rotary  and  vertical  movements  prevent  the  for- 
mation of  any  large  and  hard  clinkers. 

The  producer  is  fed  through  two  hoppers  as  shown,  or  by 
means  of  a  Bildt  or  any  other  approved  form  of  feed. 

Among  the  advantages  of  this  form  of  gas-producer  is  the 
doing  away  of  the  severe  and  continued  labor  of  poking  the  fire, 
an  operation  which  is  extremely  difficult  to  maintain  in  a  steady 
and  uniform  manner.  The  poking  being  entirely  mechanical, 
it  is  done  in  a  thorough  and  proper  manner  without  reference 
to  any  manual  labor,  and  as  a  consequence  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  gas  should  be  much  improved. 

§  200.    Morgan  gas-producer. 

The  construction  of  this  producer  equipped  with  the  Bildt 
automatic 'feed  is  shown  in  Fig.  44,  where  A  is  a  hopper  into 
which  the  coal  is  primarily  deposited,  B  is  a  register  valve  con- 
trolling the  admission  of  coal  to  the  tank  C,  directly  below.  D 
is  a  rotating  distributing  disk,  having  sloping  sides  of  varying 
angles  so  designed  as  to  deposit  the  coal  evenly  over  the  charg- 
ing area.  The  disk  is  rotated  by  the  bevel  gears  E  and  a  special 
ratchet  motion  F  operating  through  the  vertical  shaft  G.  H  is 


138     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

a  shallow  annular  pan  for  holding  water  which  is  used  to  seal 
the  poke  holes  and  the  joint  formed  by  the  lower  edge  of  tank 
base. 


FIG.  44.  —  SECTION  OF  MORGAN  GAS-PRODUCER  EQUIPPED  WITH  BILDT 
AUTOMATIC  FEED. 


The  body  of  the  producer  is  cylindrical  in  form,  the  walls  being 
heavy  to  prevent  undue  loss  from  radiation  of  heat.     /  is  a  sub- 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS.  139 

stantial  cast-iron  mantle,  upon  which  the  producer  rests.  The 
lower  edge  of  the  mantle  dips  into  the  water  below,  forming  an 
effective  seal.  There  are  but  four  narrow  points  of  support 
for  the  mantle,  so  that  practically  the  whole  circumference  is 
unobstructed  for  the  removal  of  ash. 

/  is  a  steam  blower,  which  is  built  with  special  view  to  regu- 
lating the  proportion  of  air  and  steam  going  into  the  producer  at 
any  pressure.  K  is  a  cast-iron  box  forming  a  conduit  through 
which  the  blast  is  enabled  to  reach  the  lowest  possible  point  of 
the  producer.  L  is  a  cap  or  hood  which  serves  the  double  pur- 
pose of  keeping  ashes  out  of  the  blast  box  and  of  distributing  the 
blast  to  a  proper  point  under  the  fuel  bed.  The  hood  is  circular 
in  form,  proportioned  to  the  diameter  of  the  producer.  All  of 
the  blast  is  delivered  from  under  the  center  of  area  of  charging 
surface. 

Referring  again  to  the  feeding  mechanism,  the  coal  is  supplied 
to  the  hopper  by  any  convenient  means  and  dropped  into  the 
coal  tank  C  below  as  needed.  The  coal  tank  may  be  made  large 
enough  to  receive  any  desired  quantity  of  coal,  but  two  or  three 
hours'  supply  is  usually  deemed  sufficient.  The  slow  rotating 
motion  of  the  distributer  causes  the  coal  to  work  out  of  the  tank 
C  and  fall  over  the  edge  of  the  distributer.  The  speed  of  the 
distributer  is  from  a  fraction  of  1  to  10  or  15  revolutions  per 
hour.  Speed  adjustments  are  made  by  an  adjustable  guard 
moving  under  the  ratchet  pawl. 

Fig.  45  shows  a  Morgan  producer  fitted  with  the  George  auto- 
matic feed,  and  Fig.  46  shows  the  operating  or  charging  floor  of 
the  Lackawanna  Steel  Co.  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  where  a  large  num- 
ber of  these  producers  have  been  installed. 

§  201.   Loomis  gas-producer. 

This  is  shown  in  Fig.  47.  The  producer  is  of  the  down-draft 
type  and  presents  several  unique  features  of  design.  A  and  B 
are  two  cylindrical  producers  connected  at  the  top  by  the  fire- 
brick-lined pipe  F.  E  and  D  are  valves  connecting  the  producers 
with  the  economizer  C,  which  is  simply  a  vertical  tubular  boiler. 
G  is  a  pipe  connecting  the  economizer  with  the  water-spray 
scrubber  H.  7  is  a  pipe  connecting  H  with  the  exhauster  J, 
which  is  driven  by  engine  K.  L  is  a  seal.  M  is  a  pipe  leading  to 
producer-gas  holder.  0  is  a  pipe  connecting  the  producer  with 


140    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


the  chimney.  P  is  a  cleaning  door.  R  is  the  ash-pit  door.  Q  is  the 
charging  door  through  which  the  coal  is  fed.  S  is  a  steam  pipe 
leading  from  C  to  the  ash  pit  of  the  producers.  N  leads  to  the 
water-gas  holder. 

In  starting  the  producers  a  layer  of  coke  or  wood  and  coal 
about  five  feet  in  depth  is  put  in  and  ignited  at  the  top,  the  ex- 


FIG.  45.  —  SECTION  OF  MORGAN  GAS-PRODUCER  EQUIPPED  WITH  THE 
GEORGE  AUTOMATIC  FEED. 

hauster  J  creating  a  downward  draft.  When  this  body  of  fuel 
is  ignited,  coal  is  frequently  charged,  raising  the  fuel  bed  to 
about  eight  feet  above  the  grates,  and  there  maintained.  Bitu- 
minous coal  is  generally  used;  this  is  delivered 'on  the  operating 
floor  and  fed  through  the  doors  Q,  as  needed. 

The  air  is  also  admitted  through  Q  and  by  means  of  the  ex- 
hauster J  is  drawn  down  through  the  fresh  charge  of  coal  and 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


141 


142    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

then  through  the  hot  fuel  bed  underneath.  The  valves  E  and  D 
being  open,  the  producer-gas  is  drawn  down  through  the  grates 
and  ash  pits  of  producers  A  and  B,  then  up  through  the  economizer 
C,  down  G  and  up  through  H,  down  through  /  and  J  into  L.  It 


FIG.  47.  —  LOOMIS  GAS-PRODUCER. 


requires  about  ten  minutes  to  start  the  producers ;  during  this 
time  the  gas  will  be  too  lean  for  use,  and  hence  it  is  allowed  to 
go  to  the  chimney  by  means  of  a  pipe  0.  As  soon  as  the  producer 
is  working  properly,  the  valve  in  0  is  closed  and  the  valve  in  M 
opened,  thus  allowing  the  gas  to  go  to  the  holder. 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


143 


In  making  water  gas  the  operation  is  as  follows  :  When  the 
exhauster  has  brought  the  fuel  up  into  incandescence,  the  charg- 
ing doors  Q  are  closed,  valve  D  lowered  and  the  valve  in  N 
opened,  the  valves  in  0  and  M  being  closed.  Steam  is  then 
turned  on  in  B  by  means  of  S,  and,  in  passing  through  the  incan- 
descent coal,  is  decomposed,  forming  water  gas.  Water  gas  is 
made  about  five  minutes;  when  the  temperature  of  the  fuel  beds 
has  been  considerably  reduced,  the  steam  is  shut  off  and  pro- 
ducer-gas is  made  again.  This  process  of  making  water  and 
producer-gas  is  alternated  at  intervals  of  five  minutes  or  more, 
according  to  the  quality  of  gas  desired.  In  making  the  next  run 
of  water  gas  the  course  of  the  steam  is  reversed;  i.e.,  valve  D  is 
opened  and  valve  N  closed. 


FIG.  48.  —  SECTION  OF  WILE  AUTOMATIC  GAS-PRODUCER. 

This  type  of  producer  has  been  used  quite  extensively  for 
making  gas  for  power  purposes,  and  it  has  given  very  good  re- 
sults. It  is  also  guaranteed  to  make  a  gas  clean  enough  for 
engine  use  from  bituminous  coal,  and  an  economy  of  1|  Ib.  of 
coal  per  brake-horse-power  hour  is  the  guarantee  of  the  builders. 

§  202.    Wile  automatic  gas-producer. 

This  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  48,  and  Fig.  49  shows  the 
general  arrangement.  It  is  a  combination  of  a  pressure  and 
suction  producer.  The  producer  is  under  suction  while  the 
gas  is  delivered  under  pressure  by  means  of  a  steam  ejector, 
which  sucks  the  gas  from  the  producer  and  forces  it  through  the 


144     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

usual  cooling  and  scrubbing  apparatus  into  a  regulating  gas  holder. 
Referring  to  Fig.  48,  B  is  the  ejector  which  sucks  the  gas  from 
the  producer  and  forces  it  through  the  scrubber  and  into  the 
regulating  holder  or  receiver.  The  latter  has  three  pipes:  a  gas 


outlet  to  engine,  a  gas  inlet,  and  a  return  pipe  D  which  leads 
back  to  the  seal  box  C  and  is  provided  at  its  top  end  with  the 
valve  F,  carried  by  a  lever  arm  which  is  arranged  in  the  path  of  a 
projecting  valve  lifter  E  fixed  to  the  gas  belL 


AMERICAN  PRESSURE  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


145 


When  the  bell  rises  to  its  top  position,  the  valve  F  is  opened, 
and  the  ejector  at  B,  instead  of  sucking  gas  from  the  producer, 
sucks  it  from  the  receiver  and  keeps  it  circulating  through  D 
until  the  bell  drops  enough  to  close  F.  As  the  producer  is  not 
under  suction  or  in  operation  while  the  gas  is  in  circulation, 


FIG.  50.  —  WILE  WATER-SEAL  GAS-PRODUCER. 

the  movement  of  the  bell  makes  the  operation  of  the  producer 
automatic. 

§  203.    Wile  water-seal  gas-producer. 

The  construction  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  50.  The  larger  part 
of  the  blast  enters  the  fuel  bed  in  a  lateral  direction  from  the 
central  cone. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

AMERICAN    SUCTION   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  204.    History  of  development. 

In  1884  C.  Wiegand  secured  a  patent  on  the  idea  of  having  the 
suction  of  the  gas-engine  piston  draw  air  through  the  gas-pro- 
ducer and  thus  generate  gas  which  in  turn  was  used  in  the  engine. 
On  the  investigation  of  several  interested  firms  the  idea  was 
dropped  and  the  patents  allowed  to  lapse.  However,  Wiegand 
was  very  close  to  the  successful  solution  of  the  problem,  and 
failed  only  because  he  did  not  understand  all  of  the  require- 
ments. The  first  practical  suction  gas-producer  was  built  in 
1895  by  Benier  in  France;  this  was  not  entirely  successful,  but 
the  difficulties  were  primarily  due  to  the  inadaptability  of  the 
engine  that  was  used  with  it. 

§  205.    Definition  of  suction  gas-producer. 

The  fact  that  a  producer  may  be  operated  by  an  induced  draft 
like  the  Loomis  (Fig.  47),  made  by  an  exhauster,  or  that  the 
blast  is  directed  downward  as  in  the  inverted  combustion  type 
(Fig.  47),  does  not  constitute  a  suction  gas-producer.  These 
terms  have  frequently  been  used  incorrectly  and  indiscriminately. 
The  term  suction  gas-producer  must  be  applied  only  to  those 
producers  that  have  the  air  and  steam  drawn  through  the  fuel 
bed  by  means  of  the  exhausting  action  of  the  gas-engine  piston 
on  its  charging  stroke.  Neither  should  the  term  "suction  gas" 
be  applied  to  the  gas  made  in  the  "  suction  "  type  of  gas-producer. 
(See  §  98.) 

§  206.    Classification. 

The  suction  gas-producers  now  on  the  market  may  be  divided 
into  three  general  classes,  with  reference  to  the  position  of  the 
steam-generating  apparatus  :  First,  where  the  vaporizer  is  an 
integral  part  of  the  producer.  Second,  where  the  vapo'rizer  is 
entirely  separate  from  the  producer.  Third,  where  the  vaporizer 
is  not  only  separate  but  is  heated  by  the  engine  exhaust.  The 

146 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS.  147 

nomenclature  of  the  steam-generating  apparatus  has  not  been 
uniform  on  account  of  the  individual  preferences  of  the  various 
designers.  The  terms  "boiler,"  "saturator,"  "vapor  chamber," 
"steamer,"  "evaporator"  and  "vaporizer"  have  been  used 
indiscriminately;  the  last  term  is  the  best. 

§  207.    Operation  of  suction  gas-producers. 

The  reactions  by  which  the  gas  is  evolved  are  not  novel  and  are 
the  same  as  those  taking  place  in  a  pressure  gas-producer  as  dis- 
cussed in  detail  in  Chapter  7.  For  data  on  the  handling  of  a 
suction  gas-producer  plant  see  Chapter  25. 

§  208.    Steam  supply  and  regulation. 

The  accurate  regulation  of  the  amount  of  steam  fed  into  the 
producer  is  of  great  importance,  especially  if  the  load  on  the 
engine  is  variable.  The  quantity  of  steam  going  into  the  producer 
must  always  be  proportional  to  the  amount  of  gas  that  the  engine 
is  using,  regardless  whether  that  amount  is  fixed  and  uniform  or 
variable.  If  the  normal  amount  of  steam  required  at  full  load  is 
allowed  to  go  into  the  producer  when  the  engine  is  running  light, 
not  only  will  the  composition  of  the  gas  be  changed  very  materi- 
ally and  cause  trouble  in  exploding,  but  the  fire  in  the  producer 
will  be  extinguished  in  a  very  short  time.  However,  when  the 
engine  is  working  at  full  load,  a  maximum  amount  of  steam  is 
necessary  to  avoid  excessive  temperature  of  the  fire  and  the 
formation  of  clinkers.  In  order  that  a  suction  gas-producer 
plant  shall  work  satisfactorily  through  a  wide  range  of  load  on 
the  engine,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  sympathetic  and  accurate 
adjustment  of  the  amount  of  steam  used  to  the  amount  of  gas 
used  by  the  engine.  There  are  several  devices  for  accomplish- 
ing this  result ;  Smith's  is  shown  in  Fig.  67  and  68,  and  de- 
scribed in  §  214.  The  author's  is  shown  in  Fig.  71  and  described 
in  §  216.  Dowson  and  Wintherthur  of  England,  and  Pierson 
of  France,  also  have  devices  for  securing  this  regulation. 

§  209.    American  types  of  suction  gas-producers. 

The  suction  gas-producer  is  comparatively  new  in  this  country, 
yet  in  the  short  time  that  it  has  been  on  the  market  a  large 
number  have  been  placed  in  successful  operation.  The  larger  part 
of  producers  built  and  installed  in  this  country  have  not  been 
original  American  designs,  but  are  either  built  under  European 
patents  or  else  have  been  modeled  after  European  types. 


148    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

All  the  types  that  are  now  on  the  market  (June,  1905)  are 
herein   illustrated  and    some   are   described   in  detail.     Fig.   51 


'*    ~ 


shows  the  Wood;  Fig.  52,  the  Otto;  Fig.  53,  the  Weber;  Fig.  54, 
the  Backus;  Fig.  55,  the  Wile  suction  gas-producer. 

§  210.   Nagel  suction  gas-producer. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  56.     A  is  the  producer  body  with  grate 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


149 


Producer.  Vaporizer.  Scrubber.  Equalizer. 

FIG.  52.  —  OTTO  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER, 


150   A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

B  and  ash  pit  C.  D  is  the  fuel  magazine  which  is  placed  over  and 
above  the  vaporizer  E.  The  air  enters  the  vaporizer  at  F, 
then  goes  to  the  ash  pit  by  means  of  pipe  G.  The  gases  escape 
at  H,  then  go  down  pipe  /  and  around  the  deflector  J,  and  into 
the  coke  scrubber  K;  then  down  through  pipe  L  to  equalizer  M , 


Blower.  Producer  Vaporizer.  Scrubber. 

FIG.  53.  —  WEBER  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 


and  then  to  the  engine  through  pipe  N.  The  object  of  J  is  to 
deflect  impurities  in  the  gas  downward  into  the  trap  below. 
0  is  the  hand  blower  for  starting  the  fire  in  the  producer. 

§  211.   Pintsch  suction  gas-producer. 

This  is  shown  in  Fig.  57  and  58.  Referring  to  the  former,  A 
is  the  hand  blower.  B  is  an  ash  tube  to  water-sealed  ash  trough  C. 
D  is  the  body  of  producer  and  has  a  charging  hopper  E.  F  is  the 
vaporizer  with  vent  pipe  G  and  trap  H.  I  is  the  usual  form  of  coke 
scrubber.  J  is  a  two-tray  purifier.  K  is  an  automatic  regulator 


1 1 


151 


152    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

which  operates  as  follows :  The  spring  M  acts  upward  and 
tends  to  keep  the  dome  L  of  the  reservoir  full  of  gas.  When  the 
engine  draws  gas  from  the  regulator,  the  dome  moves  down 
on  account  of  the  exterior  atmospheric  pressure,  but  is  drawn 
back  again  by  the  spring;  in  so  doing,  it  sucks  gas  from  the  pro- 
ducer. The  range  of  travel  of  the  dome  L  may  be  regulated  by 
varying  the  tension  on  spring  M.  Thus,  instead  of  the  suction 
action  taking  place  only  during  the  charging  stroke  of  the  engine, 
the  actual  gas-making  is  carried  on  for  a  longer  period. 


FIG.  55.  —  WILE  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 


§  212.    American  Crossley  suction  gas-producer. 

The  construction  and  arrangement  of  this  producer  is  shown 
in  Fig.  59,  60,  and  61.  The  producer  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
plate  steel  shell,  lined  with  firebrick  and  provided  at  its  bottom 
with  a  shaking  grate  A,  ash  pit  F,  and  door  G.  The  grate  is  oper- 
rated  from  the  outside  of  the  producer  by  means  of  the  lever  as 
shown.  B  is  a  sealed  hopper,  so  arranged  that  a  charge  of  fuel 
may  be  placed  in  the  hopper  top  C,  and  then  allowed  to  fall  into 
the  feed  tube  D  without  opening  the  producer  to  the  outside 
air.  The  feed  tube  conducts  the  fuel  down  to  where  combustion 
takes  place.  E  is  a  waste  heat  vaporizer  and  has  a  water-jacket 
extension  around  the  feed  tube  D.  The  object  of  this  vaporizer 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


153 


is  to  furnish  the  steam  required  in  the  producer;  the  water  in 
E  is  maintained  at  a  fixed  level  by  means  of  the  tank  S  and 
float  shown  on  the  right  side  of  Fig.  60. 


The  gas-cleaning  apparatus  consists  of  a  wet  scrubber,  hy- 
draulic box,  and  a  combination  wet  and  dry  scrubber.  The  first 
consists  of  a  plate  steel  cylinder,  filled  with  coke  and  mounted 
on  the  hydraulic  box.  Water  is  introduced  at  the  top  of  both 


154   A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


155 


156    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

wet  scrubbers  in  the  form  of  a  spray  and  trickles  down  into  the 
hydraulic  box  underneath.  The  gas  from  the  producer  enters 
the  first  scrubber  near  the  top  and  passes  downward  into  the 


FIG.  59.  —  CROSSLEY  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 

hydraulic  box  which  contains  a  water  seal  with  the  necessary 
overflow;  from  here  the  gas  goes  into  the  combination  scrubber, 
the  wet  section  being  constructed  the  same  as  the  first  wet  scrub- 
ber, having  but  an  extension  mounted  on  its  top,  in  which  are 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


157 


placed  trays  containing  shavings,  excelsior,  or  similar  material 
through  which  the  gas  filters  and  in  which  it  gives  up  its  mois- 
ture. While  the  fan  R  is  being  used  to  start  the  fire  in  the  pro- 
ducer, the  purge  pipe  is  kept  open  to  the  atmosphere. 


FIG.  60.  —  CROSS-SECTION  OF  CROSSLEY  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 

H  is  a  poke  hole  for  barring  the  fire  in  the  producer,  and  Q  is  a 
hand  hole  for  removing  sediment  from  the  water  jacket.  As 
shown  in  Fig.  59,  cleaning  doors  are  placed  above  the  grate  level 
to  facilitate  the  cleaning  of  the  interior  of  the  producer. 


158    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


159 


The  air  is  supplied  to  the  ash  pit  from  two  sources,  known  as 
the  primary  and  secondary  supply.  The  primary  supply  enters 
directly  from  the  outside  air  through  the  pipe  J  and  is  sucked 
up  through  the  fuel  bed.  The  secondary  supply  enters  the  top 
of  the  producer  through  valves  K,  passes  over  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  vaporizer  and  descends  through  side  pipes  L,  heavily 


FIG.  62.  —  SECTION  OF  FAIRBANKS-MORSE  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 


charged  with  steam,  to  the  air  boxes  M,  through  which  it  circu- 
lates, and  from  which  it  is  delivered  to  the  ash  pit  through  the 
nipples  N. 

§  213.    Fairbanks-Morse  suction  gas-producer. 

This  producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  62  and  63.  Referring  to  the 
former,  A  is  the  producer  composed  of  a  cylindrical  plate  steel 
shell  and  firebrick  lining.  B  is  the  fuel  magazine  charged  by 
means  of  valve  D  from  the  fuel  hopper  C,  which  is  hermetically 


160   A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

sealed  by  the  lid  E,  and  thus  it  is  possible  to  charge  B  from  C 
without  permitting  any  outside  air  to  enter  the  producer.  The 
fire  is  supported  on  the  grates  F,  which  discharge  the  ashes  into 
the  ash  pit  G,  which  is  accessible  by  means  of  the  door  H. 

I  is  the  vaporizer  for  furnishing  the  fuel  bed  with  steam;  on 
the  larger  sizes  of  this  producer,  the  vaporizer  is  removed  from 


FIG.  63.  —  ASSEMBLY  OF  FAIRBANKS-MORSE  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 

the  top  and  placed  on  the  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  63.  The  air  is 
drawn  in  through  opening  J  and  then,  passing  over  the  surface 
of  the  water  in  /,  the  steam  becomes  mixed  with  the  air  and  the 
two  then  go  down  through  pipe  K  and  up  into  the  fuel  bed  in  A. 
By  means  of  valve  L  the  gas  may  be  discharged  into  the  atmos- 
phere while  the  producer  is  being  blown  up  with  the  hand  blower 
M ,  preparatory  to  starting. 

N  is  the  usual  form  of  coke  scrubber  with  water  spray  at  top. 
0  are  hand  holes  for  cleaning  purposes.     The  object  of  the  gas 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


161 


tank  P  is  to  form  a  storage  receiver  near  the  engine  so  that  fluc- 
tuations in  the  requirements  of  the  engine  will  be  equalized. 

§  214.    Smith  suction  gas-producer. 

This  producer  is  a  radical  departure  from  the  usual  practice 
and  is  shown  in  Fig.  64,  65,  66,  67,  and  68.  Referring  to  Fig.  65, 
the  grate  proper  is  a  flat  circular  grid  A,  supported  on  the  top  of 
the  frustum  of  a  cone  B,  which  rests  on  an  annular  ring  C  that  is 
supported  by  chains  D.  By  means  of  the  lateral  flexibility  of 
the  chains  the  grate  may  be  swung  in  any  direction.  E  E  are 
cast-iron  bosh  plates  for  giving  lateral  support  to  the  ash  bed.  A 


FIG.  64.  —  SMITH  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 

space  of  four  or  five  inches  is  allowed  between  the  lower  ends 
of  E  and  the  top  of  the  grate,  thus  giving  ample  space  for  the 
removal  of  clinkers. 

Referring  to  Fig.  66,  A  is  the  wall  of  the  annular  charging  hop- 
per and  B  the  water-seal  trough.  D  is  the  hopper  valve  which  is 
secured  by  means  of  pin  L  to  lever  E;  this  is  secured  to  shaft  F 
which  is  turned  by  handle  G.  H  is  a  spring  used  to  keep  D  up 
against  A.  K  is  a  shield  surrounding  H,  F,  and  hub  M.  T  is 
the  hopper  cover;  since  the  producer  is  under  a  partial  vacuum, 
the  water  seal  between  T  and  A  rises  to  level  S. 


162     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


Referring  to  Fig.  67  and  68,  A  is  the  exhaust  inlet  from  the 
engine  to  the  superheating  chamber  B,  which  contains  the  pipes 
C,  which  are  heated  from  the  engine  exhaust  and  through  which 
the  air  and  water  are  passed.  D  is  a  shaft  on  which  the  balanced 
weighing  vessel  E  is  supported;  the  latter  has  a  rod  F  with  cir- 
cular vane  G  which  is  arranged  to  move  in  the  curved  inlet  pipe 
H.  I  is  an  orifice  in  E,  the  amount  of  water  passing  through 


FIG.  65.  —  DETAIL  OF  SWINGING  GRATE  OF  SMITH  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 

/  being  adjusted  by  the  screw  J.  K  is  the  wa+er-inlet  pipe  con- 
trolled by  the  valve  L.  If  more  water  comes  into  E  than  passes 
out  of  7,  the  surplus  is  drained  to  M  by  an  opening  in  E  not 
shown  in  the  figure  and  then  out  through  the  overflow  N. 

The  operation  is  as  follows:  When  air  is  drawn  into  the  pro- 
ducer, the  vane  G  is  moved  to  the  position  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines,  thus  turning  E  and  allowing  a  certain  amount  of  water  to 
flow  out  of  7,  the  quantity  of  water  being  proportional  to  the 
amount  of  the  movement  of  G  and  E.  When  the  suction  stroke 
of  the  engine  is  finished,  the  counterweight  0  swings  E  back  to 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


163 


164    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

its  normal  position.  As  the  water  and  air  pass  into  C,  the  former 
is  converted  into  superheated  steam  and  the  latter  is  pre-heated 
to  about  300  degrees  F. 

Since  the  heat  of  the  outgoing  gases  from  the  producer  is  not 
required  to  raise  the  steam  necessary  for  the  gas-making  process, 
the  gas  outlet  may  be  placed  higher  above  the  grate,  thereby 
cooling  the  outgoing  gases  by  contact  with  the  cold  fuel  above 
the  fire. 

In  the  scrubber  which  is  shown  on  the  right  side  of  Fig.  64, 


FIG.  67.  —  WATER  REGULATOR  FOR  SMITH  SUCTION 
GAS-PRODUCER. 

the  cleaning  and  cooling  of  the  gas  is  accomplished  by  passing 
the  gas  through  a  series  of  wooden  slats  that  are  continually 
sprayed  with  water.  When  the  gas  leaves  the  scrubber,  it  is 
passed  through  a  separator  (shown  over  and  above  the  scrubber) 
which  operates  on  the  same  principle  as  a  steam  separator. 

§  215.    Baltimore  suction  gas-producer. 

This  is  shown  in  Fig.  69.     A  is  the  body  of  the  producer,  the 
fuel  resting  on  grates  B.     C  is  the  charging  hopper.     D  is  the 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


165 


vaporizer,  containing  the  gas  outlets  E.  F  is  the  collecting 
chamber  from  which  the  gas  goes  to  pipe  H  or  vent  pipe  I.  J  is 
the  air  heater  that  is  connected  with  ash  pit  L  by  pipe  K.  M 


B 

mti^wm 

T     1 

I 

X"  C 

r"  aVA.WXV'AVO^kV^'^VV 

Air  and  Steam 
to  Producer 


FIG.  68.  —  DETAIL  WATER  REGULATOR  AND  SUPERHEATER  OF  SMITH  SUCTION 

GAS-PRODUCER. 

is  a  steam  pipe  connecting  D  with  L.     N  is  the  air  inlet.     0  is  a 
tower  scrubber  with  blocks  of  wood  P  and  a  filter  chamber  Q. 

§  216.    Wyer  suction  gas-producer. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  70  and  71.     Referring  to  Fig.  70,  A  is 


166    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

the  shaking  grate  which  is  operated  by  lever  B.  The  grate 
may  also  be  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  a  screw  not  shown 
in  the  illustration.  C  is  a  fuel  pre-heating  tube  with  renewable 
mouthpiece  D.  The  gas  must  go  up  and  around  C  and  then  down 


FIG.  69.  —  BALTIMORE  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 


the  port  E.  In  this  way  the  gas  gives  up  a  large  part  of  its  sen- 
sible heat  to  the  column  of  fuel  in  C.  When  the  lid  F  is  in  place 
the  cone  G  is  lowered,  and  any  vapors  that  are  evolved  from  the 
fuel  in  C  pass  down  in  port  H  and  by  means  of  pipe  /  are  led  to 
the  ash  pit;  these  vapors  then  go  up  through  the  fuel  bed  and 
are  broken  up  there  into  permanent  gases.  The  other  details 
of  the  construction  are  evident  from  the  illustration.  The  air 
is  pre-heated  and  the  water  is  vaporized  and  the  resulting  steam 


AMERICAN  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


167 


superheated  by  means  of  a  tubular  heater  placed  near  the  engine, 
which  utilizes  a  portion  of  the  heat  in  the  exhaust  gases.  Fig.  71 
shows  the  automatic  water  regulator,  for  a  hit-and-miss  gas 
engine.  J  is  a  piston  with  stem  K  upon  which  is  the  follower 


FIG.  70.  —  WYER  SUCTION  GAS-PRODUCER. 

piston  L;  M  is  the  inlet  port  that  is  supplied  with  water  from 
the  trap  N,  through  which  the  jacket  water  circulates.  0  is  a 
port  that  leads  the  water  to  the  vaporizer.  J  is  connected  to 
some  mechanism  of  the  engine  whose  movement  is  controlled  by 
the  governor.  Every  time  that  an  explosion  takes  place,  port 
M  is  closed  and  port  0  opened. and  the  water  contained  between 
/  and  L  passes  down  into  0.  Then  the  spring  P  draws  J  and  L 


168    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

back  to  their  starting  position.  Thus  a  small  amount  of  water 
is  admitted  to  the  vaporizer  every  time  that  the  engine  draws  in 
a  charge  of  gas;  this  amount  may  be  adjusted  by  changing  the 


'o 
FIG.  71.  — WYER  WATER  REGULATOR. 

distance  between  L  and  /.  This  secures  an  accurate  and  posi- 
tive regulation  of  water  under  any  variation  of  load.  A  similar 
device  working  in  a  vertical  direction  is  used  for  throttling 
engines. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

GAS    CLEANING. 

§  217.    Object  of  cleaning. 

The  object  in  cleaning  producer-gas  is  to  remove  such  con- 
stituents as  have  a  deleterious  effect  on  the  particular  work  that 
the  gas  has  to  do,  the  use  of  the  gas  determining  the  extent  of 
cleaning  or  the  purity  of  the  gas.  Constituents  that  would  be 
harmless  where  the  gas  is  to  be  burned  in  a  furnace  might  make 
the  gas  utterly  worthless  for  use  in  engines.  Further,  in  some 
cases,  the  cleaning  of  gas  to  a  degree  of  purity  suitable  for  engine 
use  would  prohibit  the  use  of  such  cleaned  gas  in  furnaces  on 
account  of  the  additional  cost.  The  only  general  rule  that  may 
be  laid  down  is  that  of  the  adaptability  of  the  gas  to  its  particular 
use.  The  removal  of  the  tar  is  of  such  vital  importance  that  it 
is  discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  23. 

§  218.    Classification  of  methods. 
The  methods  used  in  cleaning  gas  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

1.  Deflectors. 

2.  Liquid  scrubbers. 

a.    Sprays. 
6.    Films. 
c.   Seals. 

3.  Coolers. 

4.  Absorbers  or  filters. 

5.  Rotating  scrubbers. 

a.    Slow  speed   (mixing  action). 
6.   High  speed  (centrifugal  force). 

These  classified  types  are  generally  not  used  alone  but  two  or 
more  are  usually  combined;  thus,  in  Fig.  57,  we  have  a  com- 
bination of  deflector,  spray  scrubber,  and  absorber. 

The  principle  of  operation  of  the  respective  types  will  now  be 
discussed  in  detail. 

169 


170    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  219.    Deflectors. 

The  operation  of  these  depends  upon  the  fact  that  when  the 
motion  of  a  rapidly  moving  volume  of  gas,  carrying  matter  in 
suspension,  is  suddenly  checked  or  deflected  by  impinging  against 
an  obstruction,  a  part  of  the  suspended  matter  will  settle  down 
into  a  chamber  —  if  one  is  provided  —  and  at  the  same  time  the 
gas  will  go  around  the  obstruction  or  deflector.  If  the  settling 


^2^5 

y 

-^ 

< 

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r 

l 

> 

x- 

n 

> 

> 

x- 

i 

p 

u 

*j 



-7 

^  — 

V 

— 

> 

__»_• 

V 

•••—=—= 

? 

—  _  —  j 

-k 

JL 

V 

^= 



^ 

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__ 

_  1_" 

FIG.  72.  —  MOISTURE  COLLECTOR. 

chamber  is  provided  with  a  means  for  cleaning  same,  the  matter 
collected  from  the  gas  may  be  removed  from  time  to  time  as 
desired.  Fig.  72  is  a  moisture  collector.  Fig.  73  shows  an 
arrangement  for  collecting  dust,  while  Fig.  74  is  intended  to 


FIG.  73.  —  DUST 
COLLECTOR. 


FIG.   74.  —  MOIS- 
TURE COLLECTOR. 


dry  gas  by  catching  the  water  carried  in  suspension.  Fig.  75 
shows  the  arrangement  of  a  device  to  remove  tar  from  gas. 
It  consists  of  an  inclosed  tank  A  with  gas  inlet  B  and  out- 
let C.  D  are  deflectors  made  of  sheet  brass,  a  full  sized  detail 


GAS  CLEANING. 


171 


of  these  being  shown  in  Fig.  76.     As  the  gas  passes  through  the 
apparatus,  it  must  pass  through  D,  and  in  so  doing  is  split  up 


FIG.  75.  —  TAR  COLLECTOR. 

into  fine  streams  and  the  tar  is  deposited  on  the  brass  sheets, 
where  it  then  drains  into  the  tar  seal  below.     This  has  been  used 


N  \ 

...  / 

oooooo/ 
ooooo  f 
ooooooJ 

*~oooooo\ 
ooooo  \ 

OOOOOOJ 

FIG.  76.  —  FULL  SIZE  DETAIL  OF  DEFLECTOR 
IN  TAR  COLLECTOR. 


172     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

with  some  success  in  Europe,  but  the  clogging  up  of  the  small 
holes  gives  trouble. 

§  220.    Liquid  scrubbers. 

Water  is  usually  used  in  connection  with  the  cleaning  of  pro- 
ducer-gas, and  this  has  a  twofold  action:  First,  to  condense 
any  steam  that  may  be  in  the  gas.  Second,  to  wet  the  particles 
carried  in  suspension  and  thus  cause  them  to  settle  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  scrubber  where  they  may  be  drained  off  at  inter- 
vals. Fig.  62  shows  a  spray.  A  film  of  water  is  used  in  the 
scrubber  shown  in  Fig.  77.  Here  the  gas  enters  at  A  and  leaves 
at  B,  the  water  coming  in  at  C  and  running  down  over  the 
shelves  D.  As  the  water  drops  from  one  shelf  to  another  in 
the  form  of  a  film,  the  gas  passes  through  it,  and  the  suspended 
matter  is  washed  out.  In  all  liquid  scrubbers,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  opposite  currents.  (See  §  26.)  Water  seals  or  bell  washers 
are  discussed  in  §  242. 

§  221.    Coolers. 

The  function  of  the  cooler  is  to  precipitate  the  condensible 
constituents,  or  simply  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  gas  by 
passing  it  through  air-  or  water-cooled  vessels.  A  cooler  of 
this  type,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  78,  has  been  used  extensively 
in  Sweden  for  removing  the  moisture,  tar,  and  acetic  acid  in  pro- 
ducer-gas made  from  wood.  In  the  arrangement  shown,  the  gas 
enters  at  A,  then  passes  down  through  the  annular  opening  B 
between  the  water  jackets  C  and  D;  as  cold  water  is  kept  circu- 
lating through  these,  the  walls  of  B  are  kept  cool,  which  in  turn 
cools  the  gas  and  causes  the  condensible  constituents  to  be  pre- 
cipitated in  the  tank  E  below;  the  cleaned  gas  passes  out  at  F. 
Air  coolers  are  sometimes  used  for  reducing  the  temperature  of 
gas  before  it  goes  to  a  gas  engine. 

§  222.    Absorbers  or  filters. 

These  act  by  absorbing  impurities  in  the  gas  and  they  are 
frequently  used  for  removing  globules  of  tar  and  water.  Saw- 
dust, shavings,  excelsior,  coke,  and  charcoal  are  used  for  this 
purpose;  it  is  evident  that  these  absorbing  substances  must  be 
kept  reasonably  clean,  since,  if  they  become  clogged  up  or  satu- 
rated with  impurities,  their  efficiency  is  materially  decreased, 
and  they  may  become  useless.  The  purifier  J,  in  Fig.  57,  is  of 
this  type. 


GAS  CLEANING. 


173 


FIG.  77. 
FILM  SCRUBBER. 


FIG.  78.  —  WIMAN  GAS  COOLER. 


174     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  223.    Rotating  scrubbers. 

These  may  be  divided  into  slow-  and  high-speed  types.     To 
separate  the  impurities,   the  slow-speed  type  depends  upon  a 


FIG.  79.  —  SECTION  OF  WINDHAUSEN 
GAS-SCRUBBER. 


thorough  mixture  of  the  gas  and  a  liquor,  usually  water;  the  high- 
speed, on  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  impurities  in  the  gas. 


GAS  CLEANING. 


175 


A  German  design  of  the  slow-speed  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  79. 
It  consists  of  a  central  shaft,  D,  driven  in  the  direction  shown  by 
pulley  G;  at  the  upper  end  of  D  is  a  fan  /.  The  gas  enters  at  A 
and  is  drawn  up  through  B  and  C  by  7.  E  is  an  inner  and  F  an 
outer  shell  attached  to  D  and  rotated  with  it.  J  is  the  water- 
inlet  pipe.  The  upper  end  of  D  is  hollow,  and  water  is  forced 


FIG.  80.  —  HORIZONTAL  SECTION  OF  CENTRIFUGAL  SCRUBBER. 

into  it  and  out  into  the  chamber  formed  by  L  and  M.  As  C  is 
perforated  between  L  and  M,  the  water  goes  on  through  and 
impinges  against  F;  after  flowing  down,  it  is  caught  in  the  annular 
pan  H  and  channel  N  and  then  goes  out  at  0.  K  is  the  gas  out- 
let. 

The  operation  is  as  follows :  As  the  fan  draws  the  gas  through 
the  apparatus,  the  gas  and  water  travel  in  opposite  directions 
in  C;  and  as  this  space  is  made  very  thin,  the  gas  comes  in  close 
contact  with  the  film  of  water  and  the  impurities  are  washed 
down  into  H  and  out  at  0. 

An  English  design  of  the  centrifugal  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  80 
and  81.  The  gas  enters  at  A  and  is  given  a  high  peripheral 
velocity  by  vanes  B.  C  is  a  partition  disc  that  compels  the  gas 


176     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

to  go  out  to  its  circumference  in  order  to  pass  through  the  appa- 
ratus. In  so  doing,  the  impurities  are  dashed  against  the  casing 
F  and  then  drained  out  at  E,  while  the  purified  gas  passes  out  at 
D.  The  machine  is  simple,  does  not  require  very  much  power, 
and  has  given  good  results  in  the  elimination  of  dust,  water,  and 
tar. 


FIG.  81.  —  VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  CENTRIFUGAL 
SCRUBBER. 

§  224.    Proportions  of  tower  scrubbers. 

Height  is  an  advantage  so  that  the  gas  may  be  more  easily 
broken  up  and  more  wet  surface  may  be  presented.  In  pressure- 
gas  plants  the  diameter  is  usually  one-sixth  the  height,  while 
in  suction-gas  plants  the  diameter  is  one-fourth  the  height. 
The  volume  of  the  scrubber  should  be  about  six  times  the  normal 
fuel  volume  of  the  producer. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

BY-PRODUCT    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  225.    Definition  of  by-product  gas-producer. 

The  by-product  gas-producer,  in  addition  to  making  gas  for 
a  certain  purpose,  also  produces  one  or  more  auxiliary  products 
which  are  based  on  certain  constituents  of  the  raw  fuel  and  re- 
sulting gas.  The  by-products  are  usually  based  on  constituents 
that  are  otherwise  useless  and  would  go  to  waste.  The  number, 
nature,  and  value  of  the  by-products  and  the  method  of  collect- 
ing will  depend  on  the  composition  of  the  raw  fuel,  type  of  appa- 
ratus, cost  of  operating,  and  commercial  value  of  the  products 
saved. 

§  226.    Number  and  value  of  by-products. 

Coal  will  generally  contain  about  1.5  per  cent  of  nitrogen;  in 
the  process  of  gasification  in  the  producer  about  15  per  cent  of 
this  quantity  of  nitrogen  is  given  off  in  the  form  of  ammonia. 
The  use  of  an  excess  of  steam  will  greatly  increase  the  yield  of 
ammonia.  By  means  of  suitable  apparatus,  the  ammonia  may 
be  recovered  by  combining  it  with  some  acid.  Diluted  sulphuric 
acid  is  generally  used,  as  this  produces  the  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
which  is  the  most  valuable  and  important  by-product  at  present. 
This  is  about  the  only  one  saved  and  is  discussed  in  §  227.  Its 
principal  use  is  that  of  an  artificial  fertilizer.  Tar  is  sometimes 
saved,  but  this  is  so  troublesome  that  the  commercial  value  of 
the  product  does  not  justify  the  additional  expense.  However, 
this  refers  only  to  cases  where  the  tar  is  recovered  for  its  in- 
trinsic value,  and  does  not  apply  to  the  many  instances  where  the 
tar  must  be  removed  from  the  gas  in  order  that  it  may  be  used 
for  engine  work.  (See  §  280,  and  Chapter  23.) 

The  factors  which  will  determine  whether  a  by-product  pro- 
ducer-gas plant  will  be  profitable  or  feasible  are  as  follows: 
(1)  Increased  cost  of  installation  and  maintenance;  (2)  Salary 
of  skilled  technical  chemist  who  will  control  all  operations  of 

177 


178    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

the  plant ;  (3)  Cost  of  raw  fuel ;  (4)  Cost  of  chemicals  for  process ; 
(5)  Commercial  value  and  sale  of  by-product;  (6)  Use  of  gas. 

1.  On  account  of  the  extensive  scrubbing  apparatus  required, 
the  cost  of  installation  and  maintenance  for  a  by-product  plant 
will  be  considerably  higher  than  for  an  ordinary  plant.     How- 
ever, as  a  by-product  plant  must  be  on  an  extensive  scale  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  case,  the  cost  of  labor-saving  appliances 
will  be  decreased.     This  is  an  important  advantage,  since  the 
use  of   labor-saving  devices  is  imperative  in  all  well  designed 
plants. 

2.  For  a  by-product  plant  to  be  successful,  it  must  be  in  the 
control  of  a  skilled  technical  chemist.     Not  only  must  the  in- 
coming raw  material  be  sampled  and  analyzed  at  regular  inter- 
vals, but  the  finished  by-products  must  be  kept  up  to  a  certain 
definite  standard  in  order  that  they  may  be  of  commercial  value. 
The  laws  of  some  states  prescribe  the  composition  of  various  by- 
products, and  in  such  cases  it  is  imperative  to  keep  the  quality 
up  to  the  legal  standard  in  order  to  secure  a  safe  market.     This 
can  be  done  only  by  careful  supervision. 

3.  In  general,  a  cheaper  grade  of  fuel  may  be  used  in  the  by- 
product process  than  in  the  ordinary  system. 

4.  In  some  cases,  the  cost  of  the  chemicals  required  would  be 
so  high  as  to  make  the  process  unprofitable. 

5.  The  successful  selling  of  the  by-products  will  be  the  most 
important  factor.     Since  ammonia  sulphate  is  at  present  about 
the  only  product  of  value,  it  is  evident  that  the  installation  of  a 
large  number  of  by-product  plants  would  cause  an  over-produc- 
tion of  it  and  would  result  in  a  decrease  in  the  market  price,  un- 
less the  use  of  ammonia  sulphate  can  be  increased  at  the  same 
rate  with  the  production,  thus  maintaining  an  economical  equi- 
librium.    Companies  now  operating  or  about  to  install  by-product 
plants  will  find  it  advantageous  commercially  to  interest  farmers 
in  the  value  and  use  of  ammonia  sulphate.     This  will  require 
judicious  advertising  and  the  dissemination  of  simple  and  au- 
thentic data  with  regard  to  the  application  of  this  fertilizer  to 
the  different  soils.     Most  of  the  failures  made  in  its  use  have 
been  due  to  ignorance,  i.e.,  using  it  in  improper  quantities,  by 
poor  methods,  or  on  soils  for  which  it  is  not  adapted.     The  inevi- 
table failures  following  its  indiscriminate  application  will  be  sure 
to  react  against  its  extensive  use,  whereas  the  success  following 


BY-PRODUCT  GAS-PRODUCERS.  179 

its  scientific  use  will  greatly  augment  the  sales.     Hence  the  vital 
importance  of  the  statements  in  the  preceding  sentences. 

6.  A  by-product  process  will  make  a  cleaner  gas  from  a  low- 
grade  fuel  than  the  average  producer.  If  the  gas  is  to  be  used 
for  power  purposes  this  is  an  important  advantage. 

§  227.    Ammonia  sulphate. 

Since  this  is  the  only  by-product  of  value,  it  will  be  desirable 
to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  its  properties  and  uses.  The 
high  value  of  ammonia  salts  as  a  fertilizer  for  certain  soils  has  long 
been  recognized.  "Ammonia  sulphate  is  one  of  the  most  concen- 
trated forms  in  which  ammonia  can  be  applied  to  the  soil,  and  is, 
at  the  same  time,  one  of  the  most  active  and  readily  available 
forms,  being  decidedly  quicker  in  its  action  than  any  form  of 
organo-nitrogenous  matter.  This  manure  is  a  very  valuable  one 
on  clayey  and  loamy  soils,  while  for  cereals,  potatoes,  and 
some  other  crops  it  is  used  with  great  success,  especially  where 
it  can  be  harrowed  in  and  covered  with  the  soil."  (B  349.) 

"  Pure  ammonia  sulphate  is  a  whitish  crystalline  salt,  extremely 
soluble  in  water.  The  commercial  article,  however,  is  generally 
grayish  or  brownish  in  color,  owing  to  the  presence  of  slight 
quantities  of  impurities.  The  pure  salt  should  contain  25.75 
per  cent  of  ammonia;  but  the  commercial  article  is  generally 
sold  on  a  basis  of  24.5  per  cent.  A  useful  test  of  its  purity  is  the 
fact  that,  when  subjected  to  a  red  heat,  it  should  almost  entirely 
volatilize,  leaving  very  little  residue.  The  chief  impurities  which 
it  is  likely  to  contain  are  an  excess  of  moisture,  free  acid,  or  the 
presence  of  insoluble  matter."  (B  350.) 

Ammonium  sulphocyanate,  which  is  an  extremely  poisonous 
substance  for  plants,  may  sometimes  be  present.  To  test  for 
this,  treat  a  sample  of  the  ammonia  sulphate  with  ferric  chloride; 
if  the  sulphocyanate  is  present,  the  sample  will  change  to  a  blood- 
red  color. 

"  The  chief  advantages  of  ammonia  sulphate  are  that  it  is  very 
concentrated,  therefore  reducing  the  cost  of  handling;  it  is  always 
in  the  same  form,  a  distinct  and  definite  product,  thus  rendering 
its  purchase  a  safe  proceeding.  It  is  quick  to  act,  thus  making 
it  a  very  useful  form,  especially  for  quick-growing  crops.  Its 
physical  character  is  such  as  to  permit  its  ready  distribution  in 
a  mixture."  (B  348.) 


180     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

The  fact  that  this  fertilizer  is  not  adapted  for  all  soils,  and  in 
fact  is  worthless  for  some,  is  illustrated  in  the  following.  For 
instance,  it  is  practically  worthless  on  soils  containing  chalk  or 
lime,  for  when  it  is  applied  the  following  reactions  take  place: 

(NIL)  2SO4  +  CaCO3  =  CaSO4  +  (NH4)  2  CDs. 

(Volatile.) 
(NH4)  2S04  +  CaO  =  CaS04  +  H20  +  2NH3. 

(Volatile.) 

As  the  ammonium  compound  in  either  case  is  volatile,  it  will 
simply  pass  off  to  the  atmosphere  without  nourishing  the  plant. 

§  228.    Method  of  recovering  by-products. 

There  are  numerous  patents  on  different  methods  for  recover- 
ing the  by-products.  They  all  embody  the  following  fundamental 
points:  The  gas  on  leaving  the  producer  is  cooled  by  passing 
through  radiating  appliances  and  then  goes  to  various  forms  of 
scrubbers  and  washers,  where  it  is  treated  with  some  reagent 
whose  function  is  to  precipitate  or  absorb  some  of  the  constitu- 
ents in  the  gas,  which  is  then  thoroughly  washed  with  water  to 
remove  the  fine  dust  and  condense'  the  tar.  Sometimes  the  gas 
is  further  treated  to  remove  its  moisture. 

§  229.    Mond  by-product  producer-gas  process. 

This  was  the  first  process  to  be  commercially  successful  and  is 
the  only  one  that  has  been  introduced  in  this  country.  It  was 
developed  and  perfected  by  Dr.  Ludwig  Mond  of  England. 

A  diagrammatic  drawing  of  a  Mond  plant  is  shown  in  Fig.  82. 
A  is  the  producer  with  the  charging  hopper  B  and  hopper  exten- 
sion C.  The  producer  consists  of  two  steel  shells  which  thus  form 
an  annular  space  in  which  the  air  and  steam  may  be  heated  by 
circulating  around  the  producer.  The  lower  end  of  the  producer 
has  a  cone  D  which  extends  into  the  ash  trough  E,  and  with  the 
water  there  forms  a  water  seal.  F  is  a  thin  firebrick  lining.  G 
are  recuperator  pipes  which  cool  the  gas  and  pre-heat  the  air 
and  steam  passing  around  them.  H  is  a  washer  with  revolving 
blades  I.  J  is  the  pipe  connecting  H  with  ammonia-recovery 
tower  K,  which  is  filled  with  checkerwork. 

L  is  the  acid-supply  tank.  M  is  the  drain  tank  from  K,  the 
liquor  in  the  latter  being  led  to  M  by  pipe  N.  0  is  the  liquor- 
circulating  pump  which  carries  the  liquor  to  the  top  of  K  by 


BY-PRODUCT  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


181 


182     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

means  of  pipe  P.     Q  is  a  pipe  leading  to  the  concentrated  am- 
monia sulphate  tank. 

R  is  the  pipe  connecting  K  with  the  gas-cooling  tower  S,  which 
is  filled  with  checkerwork.  T  is  the  gas  exit;  from  here  the  gas 
is  delivered  to  the  mains.  U  is  the  air-heating  tower,  also  filled 
with  checkerwork. 

V  and  X  are  pumps  for  circulating  hot  and  cold  water  respec- 
tively, by  means  of  pipes  W  and  Y.  Z  is  the  air  blower  connected 
to  U  by  pipe  a.  b  b,  tar  drains,  c  is  a  pipe  for  admitting  some 
of  the  engine  exhaust  gases  to  the  air  and  steam  blast. 

The  operation  is  as  follows:  As  the  coal  is  fed  to  C,  the  heat  of 
the  surrounding  gases  causes  the  moisture  and  some  of  the  tarry 
vapors  to  be  distilled  off.  In  order  to  escape  from  C,  these  vapors 
must  pass  down  and  into  the  hot  fuel  bed,  where  they  are  broken 
up  and  converted  into  fixed  gases.  The  fuel  is  kept  at  a  dull  red 
heat  by  an  excessive  amount  of  superheated  steam;  3  Ib.  of  air 
and  2J  Ib.  steam  at  250  degrees  C.  are  furnished  per  pound  of 
fuel.  About  one-sixth  of  the  steam  is  decomposed  in  the  pro- 
ducer, the  remainder  being  condensed  in  the  scrubbing  apparatus. 
The  large  amount  of  steam  is  used  to  prevent  the  decomposition 
of  the  ammonia,  the  formation  of  clinkers,  and  to  secure  a  low 
and  uniform  temperature. 

The  gas  leaves  the  producer  at  about  500  degrees  C.,  and,  in 
passing  through  the  recuperators  G,  gives  up  a  large  portion  of 
its  sensible  heat  to  the  incoming  steam  and  air.  From  G  the  gas 
goes  to  the  mechanical  washer  H,  where  the  revolving  dashers 
/  fill  the  chamber  with  fine  water  spray  which  washes  the  dust 
and  soot  out  of  the  gas.  Tarry  products  will  also  be  condensed 
and  these  may  be  skimmed  off  at  intervals.  In  this  washer  the 
gas  is  cooled  and  charged  with  steam,  but  not  to  the  saturation 
point.  This  is  important,  as  it  is  very  desirable  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  water  in  the  ammonia-recovery  tower,  which  would 
be  the  inevitable  result  of  allowing  the  gas  to  become  saturated. 

From  H  the  gas  goes  to  the  tower  K.  The  checkerwork  is 
kept  saturated  with  a  diluted  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  from  the 
pipe  P.  When  the  ammonia  in  the  gas  comes  into  contact  with 
the  acid,  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  formed.  Thus: 

2NH3  +  KUSCX  =  (NIL)  2SO4 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  acid  and  the  gas  travel  in  opposite 


BY-PRODUCT  GAS-PRODUCERS.  183 

directions  (§  26),  thus  securing  a  very  close  contact  of  the 
two.  The  acid  liquor  is  kept  in  circulation  by  pump  0  until  it 
contains  about  36  per  cent  of  sulphate  of  ammonia.  The  con- 
tinuity of  the  process  is  maintained  by  removing  some  of  the  sul- 
phate-laden liquor  at  intervals  by  means  of  pipe  Q  and  adding 
a  corresponding  amount  of  fresh  diluted  acid  from  tank  L.  The 
solution  of  the  sulphate  is  then  reduced  to  a  solid  state  by  evap- 
oration. 

The  gas  then  goes  to  the  cooling  tower  S,  where  the  tempera- 
ture is  reduced  to  about  55  degrees  C.  by  means  of  cool  water 
introduced  from  Y.  Thus  the  water  condenses  the  water  vapor 
in  the  gas  and  takes  up  the  sensible  and  latent  heat.  The  gas 
is  now  ready  for  delivery  to  the  mains. 

The  hot  water  accumulating  at  the  bottom  of  S  has  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  75  degrees  C.  and  is  withdrawn  by  pump  V  and 
delivered  by  pipe  W  to  the  top  of  the  air-heating  tower  U.  The 
air  is  forced  into  the  system  by  the  rotary  blower  Z,  and  as  it 
comes  up  through  U  is  heated  and  saturated  with  water  vapor. 
From  U  the  air  goes  around  the  recuperators  G,  where  it  absorbs 
more  heat  and  is  then  delivered  to  the  producer.  The  water  in 
coming  down  through  U  is  cooled  to  about  40  degrees  C.  Pump 
X  then  delivers  this  to  the  top  of  the  tower  S. 

The  tar  collecting  in  the  bottom  of  S  and  U  may  be  removed 
by  means  of  drain  pipes  b.  Steam  is  usually  supplied  by  a  small 
auxiliary  boiler. 

The  Mond  producer  may  be  used  without  the  by-product 
feature  by  omitting  the  ammonia  tower  from  the  scrubbing 
apparatus.  In  such  a  case  part  of  the  engine  exhaust  gases 
are  introduced  at  c;  the  CO2  contained  in  these  is  reduced  to  CO  in 
the  producer.  The  object  of  this  is  to  keep  the  temperature  of 
the  producer  down  without  the  use  of  the  excess  of  steam  required 
in  the  by-product  system. 

§  230.   Distinctive  features  of  Mond  process. 

1.  The  manufacture  of  a  gas  of  uniform  quality,  and  clean 
enough  for  engine  use,  from  cheap  bituminous  slack. 

2.  The  use  of  a  large  excess  of  superheated  steam  in  the  pro- 
ducer, thus  eliminating  clinkering. 

3.  The  use  of  recuperation  and  regeneration  to  conserve  the 
heat  loss. 


184     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

4.  The  recovery  of  70  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  slack 
and  the  conversion  of  this  into  sulphate  of  ammonia,  each  ton 
of  slack  yielding  about  90  Ib.  of  the  sulphate. 

5.  "The  method  of  continuously  employing  the  water  in  cir- 
culation as  the  heat-carrying  agent  between  the  hot  gas  in  one 
tower  and  the  cold  air  in  another,  and  the  method  of  recovering 
from  the  hot  gas,  by  this  continuous  cyclical  exchange  of  heat, 
a  large  proportion  of  the  steam  required  for  the  blast."     (B  201.) 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

BY-PRODUCT  COKE-OVEN  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  231.    Status  and  future. 

The  composition  (see  table  4,  p.  50)  of  coke-oven  gas  and  the 
method  of  manufacture  are  radically  different  from  producer- 
gas.  However,  the  method  used  in  handling  the  raw  fuel  and 
resulting  gas,  the  treatment  of  the  by-products,  and  the  probable 
extensive  development  of  the  system  make  it  desirable  to  have 
a  clear  understanding  of  its  value,  scope,  method  of  operation, 
and  type  of  apparatus  used. 

The  by-product  coke-oven  process  has  already  attained  a  well 
recognized  position  in  the  metallurgical  field,  and  is  destined  to 
play  an  important  part  in  the  fuel  supply , of  the  larger  cities  and 
thickly  populated  districts.  To  such  communities,  the  by- 
product oven  delivers  gas  for  illuminating,  power,  and  fuel  pur- 
poses on  a  basis  as  favorable  as  that  of  any  other  method,  and 
at  the  same  time  yields  coke  suitable  for  domestic  and  industrial 
consumption  which  docs  not  produce  smoke.  The  approaching 
exhaustion  of  the  anthracite  mines  prevents  any  reduction  in 
the  price  of  anthracite  coal,  and  the  consequent  increase  in  the 
use  of  soft  coal  is  arousing  bitter  opposition,  particularly  in  those 
localities  hitherto  comparatively  free  from  the  smoke  nuisance. 
The  by-product  oven  offers  a  ready  solution  of  the  domestic 
smoke  problem.  It  seems,  therefore,  beyond  doubt  that  the  by- 
product oven  will  play  a  large  part  in  the  future  industrial  develop- 
ment of  this  country. 

Over  70  per  cent  of  the  ovens  built  in  this  country  may  be 
classed  under  two  heads,  viz. :  the  Otto-Hoffman  oven,  the  origi- 
nal type  built  in  Europe  by  Dr.  C.  Otto  &  Company,  and  the 
United-Otto  oven,  which  is  the  improved  type  resulting  from 
the  American  developments  and  modifications. 

§  232.    Otto-Hoffman  Oven. 

The  Otto-Hoffman  oven  in  the  American  form  is  shown  in 
sectional  perspective  in  Fig.  83.  The  coking  chamber  itself  con- 

185 


186     A   TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


BY-PRODUCT  COKE-OVEN  GAS-PRODUCERS.  187 

sists  of  a  long,  narrow  retort  of  firebrick  construction,  a  number 
of  such  retorts,  usually  50,  being  placed  side  by  side  to  form  a 
battery.  The  dimensions  of  this  retort  are  33  ft.  long,  6J  ft. 
high,  and  from  17  in.  to  22  in.  in  width,  containing  6  to  7  net  tons 
of  coal  at  a  charge.  The  walls  of  the  retort  are  built  with  ver- 
tical internal  flues,  heated  by  gas.  The  ends  of  the  retorts  are 
closed  by  iron  doors,  lined  with  firebrick,  fitting  closely  to  the 
brickwork  and  luted  with  clay.  These  are  raised  and  lowered 
by  a  winch  or  by  an  electrical  lifting  device.  The  coal  is  charged 
into  the  ovens  from  three  larries  moved  by  hand  along  tracks, 
laid  on  the  oven  top  or,  in  the  later  plants,  by  a  single  electrically 
operated  larry  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  single  larry  has 
spouts  which  deliver  the  coal  from  corresponding  openings  in 
the  oven  top  to  the  oven  chamber  below.  The  coke  is  pushed 
out  of  the  oven  by  the  electrically  operated  pusher  and  is  received 
and  quenched  on  a  wharf,  from  which  it  is  loaded  by  hand  into 
railroad  cars  on  a  depressed  track  alongside.  The  heating  of 
the  oven  is  done  by  gas,  returned  from  the  condensing  house 
through  lines  running  along  each  side  of  the  battery,  there  being 
a  burner  at  each  end  of  each  oven.  Only  one  burner  is  used  at 
a  time.  The  air  for  combustion  is  taken  in  at  the  end  of  the 
battery,  where  the  gas  and  air  reversing  valves  are  located,  and 
is  led  through  the  underground  passages,  shown  in  the  figure,  to 
the  flues  beneath  the  regenerative  chambers.  These  extend  the 
whole  length  of  the  oven  battery  and  are  filled  with  checker- 
brick.  The  air  rising  through  this  checkerwork  is  heated  to  a 
high  degree,  passing  then  through  uptake  connections  to  the 
space  beneath  the  floor  of  the  oven  chambers,  and  through  lateral 
ports  to  the  combustion  chamber,  where  it  meets  the  gas  from 
the  burner.  The  burning  gases  rise  through  the  vertical  flues 
of  half  the  wall,  pass  along  the  horizontal  connecting  flue  above, 
and  down  the  remaining  vertical  flues  to  the  horizontal  flues 
below,  thence  passing  to  the  regenerator,  where  their  sensible 
heat  is  absorbed  by  the  checkerwork.  From  there  they  are  led 
to  the  lower  regenerator  flue,  past  the  reversing  valve  to  the 
draft  stack.  On  the  reversal  of  the  air  and  gas,  the  gas  burner 
on  the  other  end  of  the  oven  comes  into  use,  the  air  passing  up 
through  the  heated  regenerator  on  that  side,  and  to  the  gas 
chamber  and  combustion  chamber,  the  heated  gases  passing  in  a 
reverse  direction  through  the  wall  flues  downward  through  the 


188     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

regenerator  and  so  to  the  stack.     The  period  of  reversal  is  30 
minutes. 

§  233.    Treatment  of  gas. 

The  gas  given  off  from  the  coal  during  the  coking  operation  is 
led  away  from  the  oven  through  uptake  pipes  furnished  with 
valves  to  the  gas-collecting  mains.  If  the  surplus  gas  is  to  be 
used  for  fuel  purposes  only,  one  gas-collecting  main  is  needed, 
but  if  it  is  required  to  make  illuminating  gas,  two  are  used  - 
one  to  take  the  portion  of  the  gas  delivered  during  the  first  part 
of  the  coking  time,  known  as  the  "rich  gas."  This  fraction  is 
higher  in  illuminants  than  the  last  portion  of  the  gas,  and  is  there- 
fore better  suited  for  distribution  purposes.  This  separation  is 
done  by  the  application  of  the  principle  of  fractional  distillation 
(§  49).  The  last  portion  of  the  gas  is  led  off  into  the  fuel-gas 
main  and  is  used  for  heating  the  ovens.  The  two  portions  of 
the  gas  are  kept  absolutely  separate  through  the  subsequent 
cooling  and  condensing  operations,  the  condensing  house  being 
so  arranged  as  to  handle  them  in  separate  systems,  usually 
arranged  in  parallel. 

§  234.    United-Otto  oven. 

This  is  a  modification  of  the  type  described  in  the  previous 
section.  The  adoption  of  the  underfired  principle  in  this  oven 
admits  of  properly  heating'  a  longer  retort  of  greater  coal  capacity 
than  would  be  possible  with  the  older  system  of  a  single  burner 
at  either  end;  at  the  same  time  the  retention  of  the  regenerative 
system  aids  the  heat  distribution  and  permits  each  oven  battery 
to  be  an  economical  unit  without  the  use  of  the  steam  boiler 
auxiliary  to  absorb  the  heat  from  the  waste  gases. 

The  details  of  this  type  of  oven  are  shown  in  the  cross-section 
in  Fig.  84,  which  also  gives  the  arrangement  of  the  coal  conveyors, 
coal  bin,  pusher,  and  quencher.  The  oven  itself  is  a  rectangular 
retort  from  33  to  43  ft.  long,  7  to  9  ft.  high,  and  17  in.  wide,  the 
dimensions  varying  with  the  characteristics  of  the  coal  that  is  to 
be  used.  The  retort  walls,  top  and  bottom,  are  composed  of 
refractory  material,  and  the  masonry  is  supported  on  a  steel  and 
concrete  substructure  so  as  to  be  entirely  independent  of  the 
regenerative  chambers  below.  This  avoids  the  cracking  of  the 
oven  walls  and  the  subsequent  loss  of  gas  liable  to  occur  from 
the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  heated  regenerator  walls 


BY-PRODUCT  COKE-OVEN  GAS-PRODUCERS, 


189 


190     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

beneath  the  oven  structure.  The  open  substructure  admits  of  a 
complete  anchoring  system  joining  the  buckstays  above  and  be- 
low, and  holding  the  oven  walls  securely  in  place.  The  steel 
work  of  the  substructure  is  protected  from  the  heated  brick- 
work above  by  a  course  of  hollow  tile,  which  also  serves  to  retain 
the  heat  in  the  ovens  themselves. 

The  oven  chamber  is  closed  at  either  end  by  doors,  which  are 
of  the  self-sealing  type,  replacing  clay  luted  doors.  These  do 
away  with  the  labor  of  mixing  and  applying  the  luting  clay. 

§  235.    Wall  construction. 

The  construction  of  the  oven  walls  is  a  point  of  vital  impor- 
tance. Shaped  brick  ground  to  exact  size  by  carborundum  grind- 
ing wheels  are  used.  This  results  in  a  practically  gas-tight  wall 
of  great  strength. 

The  resistance  of  the  wall  is  enhanced  by  the  vertical  flue  sys- 
tem. As  will  be  seen  in  the  drawing,  the  heating  flues  run  per- 
pendicularly along  all  that  portion  of  the  oven  wall  against  which 
the  coal  can  exert  any  pressure.  The  divisions  between  the  flues 
form  vertical  strengthening  ribs,  and  tie  the  walls  into  a  single 
homogeneous  whole.  This  is  of  vital  importance  when  coals  of 
only  slightly  shrinking  or  even  expanding  nature  are  to  be  coked. 

§  236.    Heating  systems. 

The  heating  of  the  United-Otto  ovens  is  accomplished,  as  in  the 
Otto-Hoffman  oven,  by  the  use  of  gas  returned  from  the  conden- 
sing house  through  the  two  mains  shown  beneath  the  middle 
portion  of  the  ovens  in  Fig.  84.  The  air  for  combustion  is  sup- 
plied to  the  regenerator  by  a  fan,  this  method  aiding  in  the  equal 
distribution  of  the  air  to  each  oven  and  reducing  the  amount 
of  stack  draft  necessary. 

§  237.   Operation. 

The  gas  is  admitted  through  a  burner  at  each  end  and  four  or 
six  burners  in  the  bottom,  placed  symmetrically  on  each  side  of 
the  middle  line.  This  avoids  the  use  of  bottom  burners  above 
the  regenerative  chambers,  wrhere  they  are  less  easy  of  access  for 
cleaning  and  regulation. 

The  surface  of  the  checker  brick  in  the  regenerators  is  so  pro- 
portioned as  to  render  efficient  service  in  absorbing  the  heat  from 
the  waste  gases.  The  temperature  of  the  waste  gases  leaving 


BY-PRODUCT  COKE-OVEN  GAS-PRODUCERS.  191 

the  regenerators  is  not  high  enough  to  cause  deterioration  of 
cast-iron  reversing  valves  of  the  usual  form. 

The  coal  received  in  the  cars  is  dumped  into  track  hoppers 
below  the  ground  level  and  transported  by  the  coal  conveyor  to 
the  storage  bin  above.  From  this  bin  the  coal  is  drawn  through 
chutes  to  the  charging  larry  beneath,  which  is  operated  by  elec- 
tric motors  and  travels  on  rails  over  the  top  of  the  oven  battery. 
From  the  larry  the  coal  is  charged  into  the  ovens  by  means  of 
the  chutes,  which  correspond  with  the  openings  in  the  oven  top. 
The  charge  is  then  leveled  to  an  even  surface  in  the  oven  by  an 
electrically  operated  leveling  bar,  which  travels  back  and  forth 
through  an  opening  in  the  oven  door.  This  leveling  bar  is  car- 
ried on  the  pusher,  and  is  operated  by  the  pusherman.  When 
this  is  completed,  the  oven  is  sealed  up  and  the  valve  leading  to 
the  gas  main  is  opened.  There  are  two  of  these  mains  provided, 
the  one  for  the  rich  gas  and  the  other  for  the  fuel  gas.  When  the 
coking  period  has  elapsed,  the  ovens  are  disconnected  from  the 
gas  mains,  the  doors  are  removed,  and  the  coke  charge  pushed  out 
of  the  oven  by  the  ram  or  pusher  seen  on  the  left-hand  side. 

§  238.    Quencher. 

The  quencher  is  shown  in  actual  operation  in  Fig.  85. 

The  coke  is  received  in  the  quencher,  which  is  a  rectangular 
box  of  cast  iron  with  cellular  walls  to  admit  of  water  cooling.  It 
is  large  enough  to  take  in  the  whole  oven  charge,  and  its  bottom 
is  formed  of  a  motor-driven  chain  conveyor.  The  whole  machine 
travels  on  rails  parallel  to  the  oven  battery,  and  connection  is 
made  with  the  particular  oven  to  be  pushed  by  means  of  swing 
doors  and  a  drop  bottom  which  guide  the  coke  charge  to  the 
receptacle,  assisted  by  the  moving  conveyor  bottom.  When  the 
charge  is  received  the  doors  are  closed  and  the  coke  quenched 
with  water.  The  immediate  and  violent  generation  of  steam 
is  taken  care  of  by  the  escape  stack  shown  in  the  illustration. 
The  whole  receptacle  is  filled  with  steam,  practically  excluding 
the  air,  so  that  the  silvery  gray  color  of  the  coke  is  preserved, 
as  in  the  beehive  product.  When  the  quenching  is  complete 
the  coke  is  discharged  into  the  car  on  the  track  adjoining. 

Another  form  of  quencher  consists  of  a  steel  car  having  a  slop- 
ing bottom,  which  travels  along  the  oven  battery  as  described 
above,  and  into  which  the  coke  falls  as  it  is  pushed  out  of  the 


192    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


oven  and  across  the  narrow  oven  platform.  The  coke  lying  in 
the  car  is  quenched  by  means  of  a  water  hose.  The  motion  of 
the  car  across  the  path  of  the  coke  leaving  the  oven  serves  to 
distribute  it  evenly  on  the  floor  of  the  car.  Many  of  the  older 
plants  still  quench  the  coke  on  a  wharf  built  at  the  height  of 


the  oven  bottom,  and  wide  enough  to  take  the  whole  oven  charge 
easily.  The  coke  pushed  out  on  this  wharf  is  spread  out  with 
hooks  and  quenched  with  a  hose,  as  shown  in  Fig.  83,  afterwards 
being  loaded  into  railroad  cars  by  barrows. 


BY-PRODUCT  COKE-OVEN  GAS-PRODUCERS.  193 

§  239.    Air  and  water  coolers. 

These  are  shown  in  Fig.  86.  The  gas  enters  on  the  left,  coming 
directly  from  the  ovens.  It  first  passes  through  air  and  water 
coolers,  which  lead  the  gas  to  and  fro  in  ascending  zigzag  pas- 
sages, exposing  a  large  surface  for  atmospheric  cooling.  A  num- 
ber of  these  cooling  units  are  arranged  in  parallel,  so  that  any 
single  one  may  be  taken  off  for  cleaning  without  disturbing  the 
operation  of  the  remainder.  All  are  provided  with  an  external 
sprinkling  system,  so  that  water  cooling  may  be  used  in  hot 
weather  if  necessary.  The  cross-section  of  the  gas  passages 
in  this  apparatus  is  long  and  narrow,  so  that  the  cooling  surface 
is  large  for  the  volume  of  gas  space. 

The  further  reduction  of  the  gas  temperature  is  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  rectangular  water  coolers  of  special  design.  The 
gas  space  is  divided  by  successive  baffles  so  that  a  tortuous  path 
is  followed,  and  the  water  circulation  is  made  to  flow  through 
the  tubes  in  an  opposite  direction;  this  gives  a  high  efficiency  of 
heat  transmission  and.  permits  economy  in  the  use  of  cooling 
water. 

§  240.    Exhausters. 

These  are  of  the  positive  rotary  type,  and  are  steam  driven. 
The  function  of  the  exhauster  is  to  remove  the  gas  from  the 
ovens  and  draw  it  through  the  mains  and  cooling  apparatus, 
it  being  undesirable  to  rely  upon  the  pressure  generated  by  the 
gas  evolution  in  the  ovens  to  accomplish  this.  In  order  to  avoid 
leakage  of  air  into  the  ovens,  a  slight  pressure  is  maintained  on 
them  at  all  times.  The  exhausters  also  force  the  gas  through 
the  scrubbing  apparatus  and  deliver  it  to  the  ovens  under  pres- 
sure, or  to  the  purifiers  and  storage  gas  holder  in  the  case  of  the 
rich  gas.  The  control  of  the  gas  passing  through  the  system 
therefore  centers  in  the  exhauster  room,  and  here  is  placed  the 
gauge  board,  on  which  are  carried  the  pressure  and  vacuum 
gauges  showing  the  working  conditions  in  the  various  apparatus. 

§  241.    Tar  scrubbers. 

These  are  of  the  frictional  type  and  remove  the  tar  existing  as 
a  fine  mist  in  the  gas  by  passing  it  through  small  openings  in 
successive  thin  steel  diaphragms,  the  friction  causing  the  tar  to 
deposit  in  globules.  With  coal  yielding  considerable  naphtha- 
line, the  temperature  at  the  scrubber  must  be  raised  enough  to 


194    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


BY-PRODUCT  COKE-OVEN  GAS-PRODUCERS.  195 

overcome  the  stoppages  occurring  there  from   naphthaline  de- 
posits. 

§  242.    Ammonia  scrubbers. 

These  are  of  the  tower  type,  the  gas  passing  upwards  through  a 
lattice  work  of  wooden  slats,  and  the  scrubbing  water  passing 
downwards.  Fresh  water  is  used  in  the  last  scrubber,  and  the 
weak  resulting  liquor  is  used  in  the  scrubbers  preceding  this, 
until  it  becomes  strong  enough  for  distillation. 

Another  form  of  scrubber  sometimes  employed  is  of  the  rotary 
type.  In  this  the  gas  passes  through  a  cylindrical  shell  horizon- 
tally placed,  through  which  passes  a  revolving  shaft  carrying 
wooden  grids,  lattice  work  on  steel  plates,  which  dip  in  com- 
partments filled  with  water,  forming  the  lower  portion  of  the 
cylinder,  and  thus  present  a  constantly  wetted  surface  to  the  gas 
passing  through  the  upper  part.  The  ammonia  is  absorbed  by 
the  water,  as  in  the  tower  scrubber.  Bell  washers  in  which  the 
gas  is  forced  through  a  series  of  water  seals  have  been  successfully 
used.  The  gas  leaving  the  ammonia  scrubbers  is  sufficiently 
clean  for  use  in  oven  heating,  for  transportation  to  a  distance 
under  pressure,  or  for  use  in  gas  engines  in  the  majority  of  cases. 
For  illumination  purposes  it  should  be  passed  through  purifiers 
to  remove  the  sulphur  compounds  present,  as  is  the  case  with 
ordinary  illuminating  gas.  The  amount  of  sulphur  present  in  the 
gas  depends  entirely  upon  the  quality  of  coal  used. 

§  243.    Recovery  of  ammonia. 

The  ammonia  obtained  is  in  the  form  of  a  crude  weak  liquor, 
containing  from  1  to  2  per  cent  of  ammonia  (NH3).  This  is 
transformed  by  distillation  into  concentrated  crude  liquor,  hav- 
ing 14  to  18  per  cent  NH3,  or  by  combining  it  with  sulphuric 
acid  into  ammonium  sulphate.  In  the  first  instance  it  can  be 
disposed  of  to  the  manufacturers  of  alkali,  soap  and  chemicals  of 
various  forms.  It  may  be  further  purified  to  form  aqua  ammonia, 
or  by  distillation  and  compression  transformed  into  anhydrous 
ammonia,  either  of  which  is  used  in  artificial  refrigeration. 

§  244.    Benzol  recovery. 

Benzol  (C6H6),  or  benzene,  exists  as  a  vapor  in  coke-oven  gas. 
As  it  is  an  excellent  illuminant,  a  large  portion  of  the  candle 
power  is  due  to  its  presence.  It  can  be  recovered  from  the  gas 
by  passing  through  washers  in  which  dead  oil  —  creosote  —  is 


196     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS, 

used  as  the  scrubbing  liquor.  This  oil  absorbs  the  benzol  and  it 
may  be  recovered  from  the  oil  by  fractional  distillation  and 
subsequent  condensation.  It  is  a  colorless  liquid  possessing 
great  inflammability  and  is  used  as  a  solvent  of  India  rubber 
and  in  various  chemical  manufactures.  It  is  much  employed 
abroad  as  an  enricher  of  illuminating  gas,  but  the  limited  pro- 
duction and  high  price,  as  well  as  the  general  use  of  petroleum 
products  for  the  same  purpose,  have  militated  against  its  intro- 
duction in  this  country. 

When  the  rich  fraction  of  the  gas  is  to  be  used  for  illuminating 
purposes,  the  removal  of  the  benzol  is  clearly  a  detriment.  It 
is,  however,  possible  to  obtain  considerable  benzol  from  the  fuel- 
gas  fraction,  the  loss  in  heating  power  being  negligible.  The 
transfer  of  this  benzol  without  intermediate  condensation  to  the 
rich  fraction  for  its  further  enrichment  is  done  by  scrubbing 
the  gas  with  dead  oil  —  creosote  —  which  absorbs  the  benzol, 
this  oil  in  turn  being  deprived  of  its  benzol  by  heating,  and  the 
benzol  vapors  mixed  with  the  rich  gas  fraction.  The  process 
also  has  an  advantage  in  its  tendency  to  remove  all  naphthaline 
troubles. 

§  245.    Use  of  gas  in  engines. 

Coke-oven  gas  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  the  gas  engine  for 
power  purposes,  the  rich  fraction  having  about  700  B.  t.  u.  or 
the  poor  fraction  having  from  400  to  600  B.  t.  u.  per  cu.  ft., 
according  to  the  coal;  or,  in  case  the  gas  is  not  divided,  the  gen- 
eral run  of  gas  averaging  between  these  two  in  calorific  power. 

In  general,  the  gas  as  delivered  from  the  condensing  house  may 
be  considered  ready  for  use  in  the  engine  cylinder  without  further 
necessity  for  purification.  The  small  amount  of  sulphur  present 
does  not  appear  to  have  sufficient  action  upon  the  working  parts 
of  the  engine  to  justify  the  cost  of  its  removal.  The  experience 
of  a  number  of  foreign  coke-oven  works,  where  oxide  purification 
apparatus  was  provided  for  the  removal  of  the  sulphur  before 
admitting  the  gas  to  the  engines,  has  resulted  in  the  majority 
of  cases  in  eliminating  this  process  entirely.  In  some  cases 
further  scrubbing  through  sawdust  or  other  mechanical  puri- 
fiers has  been  resorted  to,  but  with  a  thoroughly  cleaned  gas 
this  is,  of  course,  unnecessary. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

PRODUCER-GAS    FOR    FIRING    CERAMIC    KILNS. 

§  246.    Status. 

While  producer-gas  has  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
Europe  for  the  heating  of  ceramic  kilns,  it  has  not  been  intro- 
duced to  any  extent  in  this  country.  This  fact  may  be  accounted 
for  as  follows : 

First,  the  limited  literature  on  the  subject  —  and  this  of  a 
fragmentary  nature  —  has  made  it  generally  impossible  for 
engineers  and  manufacturers  to  secure  reliable  data  on  all  the 
different  phases  of  the  problem.  This  ignorance  of  the  subject 
has  made  it  easy  for  many  persons  connected  with  the  ceramic 
industry  to  entertain  distorted  and  erroneous  ideas  of  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  the  use  of  producer-gas  for  such 
work.  In  some  cases,  the  advocates  of  both  sides  of  the  ques- 
tion have  gone  to  extremes  and  have  lost  sight  of  the  funda- 
mental conditions  of  the  problem. 

Second,  the  economical  use  of  fuel  has  not  always  been  neces- 
sary. In  general,  a  gas-producer  will  do  more  work  with  a 
given  quantity  of  fuel  and  will  also  make  it  possible  to  use  a  lower 
grade  of  fuel. 

Third,  the  absence  or  non-enforcement  of  laws  against  the 
smoke  nuisance  of  ceramic  plants.  Since  the  gas-producer  is  an 
ideal  solution  for  this  problem,  the  enforcement  of  anti-smoke 
laws  will  result  in  an  increased  use  of  producers. 

Fourth,  the  conservatism  against  change;  "this  peculiarity 
must  be  sought  in  the  ancient  traditions  of  the  potter."  How- 
ever, as  the  customs  and  empirical  recipes  of  the  fathers  are 
being  rapidly  replaced  by  the  scientific  methods  and  chemical 
formulae  of  the  technically  trained  ceramic  engineers,  we  may 
expect  that  future  methods  of  burning  ceramic  kilns  will  have 
a  more  rational  basis,  and  that  the  true  value  of  producer-gas 
for  such  work  will  be  appreciated. 

197 


198    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Fifth,  inadaptability  of  kiln  to  producer.  The  neglect  to 
recognize  that  it  is  imperative  to  have  the  kiln  adapted  to  the 
producer,  or  vice  versa,  has  resulted  in  many  costly  failures.  A 
producer  that  would  give  good  results  in  firing  a  lime  or  cement 
kiln  might  be  a  complete  failure  in  firing  some  types  of  brick  or 
tile  kilns. 

§•247.    Value. 

Seger  (B  160)  states:  "The  main  point  of  gas-firing  in  all  in- 
dustries lies  in  the  utilization  of  low-grade  fuel  which,  on  account 
of  its  high  content  of  ash,  its  content  of  water  and  impurities, 
as  well  as  owing  to  its  form,  does  not  produce  the  required  heat 
effect."  In  other  words,  with  gas-firing,  higher  and  more  uni- 
form temperatures  may  be  obtained  when  a  low-grade  fuel  is 
gasified  than  when  it  is  burned  direct. 

§  248.    Objections. 

"  The  objections  made  to  gas  kilns  —  such  as  danger  of  ex- 
plosions, greater  cost  of  construction,  obstruction  of  conduits 
by  tar,  more  expensive  firing,  etc.  —  have  very  little,  if  any, 
foundation.  But  to  succeed  in  using  them  carefully,  well  trained 
workmen  are  required  who  are  capable  of  ensuring  a  steady  and 
uniform  working  of  the  producer;  there  lies  the  whole  secret 
of  success."  (B  126.) 

§  249.    Difficulties  in  using  producer-gas. 

One  of  the  first  difficulties  in  the  use  of  producer-gas  is  that, 
since  the  products  of  combustion  are  different  from  those  of  solid 
fuels,  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  comparable  results  where  the 
workman  attempts  to  judge  the  degree  or  intensity  of  burning 
by  observing  the  color  of  the  finished  product,  as  seen  through 
the  products  of  combustion.  When  a  heated  brick  or  other 
object  is  observed  through  this  atmosphere,  the  shade  of  color 
appears  very  different  from  similar  objects,  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture and  color,  when  observed  through  an  atmosphere  composed 
of  the  products  of  combustion  of  a  solid  fuel.  This  fact  has  been 
the  cause  of  several  failures  where  good  coal  burners  have  not 
been  able  to  succeed  with  gas.  It  is  evident  that  this  trouble 
is  not  the  fault  of  producer-gas,  but  rather  the  inability  of  the 
workman  to  interpret  the  results  obtained,  and  it  may  easily 
be  eliminated  either  by  teaching  the  workman  how  to  observe 


PRODUCER-GAS  FOR  FIRING  CERAMIC  KILNS.  199 

the  correct  color  and  corresponding  temperature  or  by  control- 
ling that  point  by  means  of  a  reliable  pyrometer. 

The  regulation  of  the  air  supply  —  especially  in  burning 
brick  —  has  often  given  trouble;  this  feature  is  discussed  as 
follows  by  Davis  (B  48),  with  reference  to  natural  gas,  but  the 
same  difficulties  have  frequently  been  experienced  with  pro- 
ducer-gas : 

"If  from  any  cause  there  is  a  disproportion  between  the  gas 
and  the  air,  the  brick  will  be  injured,  as  we  shall  see  in  relation 
to  water-smoking  and  the  early  stage  of  firing.  In  water-smok- 
ing with  gas,  the  process  will  require  a  longer  period  than,  with 
solid  fuel  in  order  to  preserve  the  brick  in  their  natural  color 
and  original  form.  If  haste  is  attempted,  the  gas  will  not  be 
thoroughly  consumed  and  the  oxygen  taking  up  the  hydrogen 
frees  the  carbon,  which,  being  in  minute  particles,  seems  to  enter 
the  pores  of  the  clay  and  discolor  the  brick.  When  the  kiln 
becomes  hotter,  these  particles  are  consumed  and  act  as  if  bitu- 
minous coal  dust  had  been  mixed  with  the  clay." 

The  tar  in  the  gas  made  from  soft  coal  will  frequently  give 
more  or  less  trouble  by  clogging  valves,  dampers,  and  conduits, 
or  by  discoloring  the  articles  being  burned  in  the  kiln.  The 
easiest  solution  for  this  is  to  so  design  the  producer  as  to  require 
the  gas  to  pass  through  a  mass  of  incandescent  coke  and  in  this 
way  break  up  the  tar  into  non-condensible  compounds.  Scrub- 
bing the  gas  would  remove  the  trouble  but  would  usually  ab- 
stract the  larger  part  of  the  sensible  heat  of  the  gas. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  secure  the  ignition  of  producer-gas 
in  a  cold  chamber  and  with  cold  air.  For  this  reason  it  has 
usually  been  difficult  to  water-smoke  brick  with  producer-gas, 
and  in  its  place  wood  is  often  used  for  this  preliminary  heating. 
A  type  of  kiln  in  which  the  air  is  pre-heated  is  always  desirable 
for  the  utilization  of  producer-gas;  the  effect  of  pre-heating  is 
discussed  in  §§  109,  112,  and  113. 

§  250.    Heat  losses. 

The  non-cooling  of  the  gas  in  traveling  from  the  producer  to 
the  kiln  is  of  vital  importance  and  is  ably  discussed  by  Professor 
Orton  (B  142) :  "  In  the  producer,  we  perform  the  first  reaction, 
burning  the  carbon  substantially  to  CO.  Of  course  there  are 
numerous  other  side  reactions  taking  place,  but  the  gas  produced 


200     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

is  essentially  CO,  and  still  contains  locked  up  10,050  B.  t.  u.  per 
pound  of  carbon  contained.  We  may  then  carry  this  pound  of 
carbon  in  the  form  of  producer-gas  to  the  point  where  we  wish 
to  burn  it,  and  there  liberate  the  remaining  10,050  B.  t.  u.  If  the 
gas  is  cooled  down  to  atmospheric  temperature,  it  means  a  loss 
of  4450  B.  t.  u.  out  of  14,500  —  a  heavy  proportion  to  pay  for  the 
advantage  of  producer-gas.  If  the  producer  is  located  a  long 
distance  from  the  kilns  so  that  the  gas  reaches  them  cool,  you  lose 
substantially  thirty  per  cent  of  the  heat  contained  in  the  fuel. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  producer  is  located  very  close,  you  may 
greatly  reduce  the  loss  of  the  4450  heat  units  given  off  in  mak- 
ing the  gas;  a  large  part  may  remain  in  the  gas  as  sensible  heat, 
and  these  heat  units  may  be  carried  by  the  gas  directly  into  the 
kiln  where  the  remaining  heat  units  are  given  off  when  the  gas 
meets  the  air.  Therefore,  if  you  are  using  gas  hot  from  the 
producer,  and  throwing  it  into  the  zone  of  combustion  with 
comparatively  little  cooling  off,  there  is  no  great  loss  of  efficiency 
in  using  coal  in  this  form.  In  a  gas-producer  process  this  point 
should  be  carefully  studied.  The  efficiency  of  the  producer 
depends  on  using  the  gas  from  the  producer  at  as  small  a  distance 
as  possible,  and  the  utmost  pains  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
cooling  down  of  the  gas  before  it  reaches  the  scene  of  its  final 
combustion." 

The  loss  of  30  per  cent  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph 
may  be  reduced  to  at  least  15  per  cent  by  the  use  of  steam  in 
the  producer,  as  discussed  in  Chapter  8.  At  Mt.  Savage,  Mary- 
land, where  the  gas  is  used  for  heating  a  continuous  brick  kiln, 
a  unique  arrangement  has  been  worked  out  to  reduce  the  sen- 
sible heat  loss  in  the  gas.  "  The  producer  is  portable,  and  moves 
on  wheels  on  a  track  along  the  side  of  the  kiln  on  the  side  oppo- 
site to  the  main  flue.  The  idea  of  having  the  producer  portable 
is  that,  by  being  able  to  move  it  to  successive  chambers,  the  gases 
are  still  hot  when  they  enter  the  kiln  and  ignite  more  readily 
than  if  conveyed  through  flues  or  pipes  from  a  stationary  pro- 
ducer." (B  142.) 

§  251.   Effect  of  solid  fuel  constituents. 

This  point  has  been  discussed  thoroughly  by  Seger  (B  160). 
"From  the  very  start  a  correct  conception  of  the  effects  which 
the  separate  constituents  of  the  gas  exert  has  not  been  had ,  and 


PRODUCER-GAS  FOR  FIRING  CERAMIC  KILNS.  201 

it  has  been  believed  that  if  only  the  ash  is  removed  all  discolor- 
ing influences  are  done  away  with  also.  But  has  really  the 
quality  of  the  fuel  been  changed  by  gasification?  Is  there  not 
present  the  same  quantity  of  steam,  volatile  sulphur  compounds, 
ammonium  salts,  alkali  vapors,  and  perhaps  other  impurities 
which  are  present  when  the  low-grade  fuel  is  burnt  on  a  grate? 
And  are  not  the  constituents  mentioned  those  which  exert  the 
most  injurious  effects  owing  to  violent  chemical  reaction  and 
hence  are  to  be  feared  more  than  the  ash?  These  constituents 
cause  the  difference  between  the  flames  of  fossil  fuels  and  wood. 
The  chemical  reactions  of  the  flame,  and  especially  the  volatile 
impurities,  exert  exactly  the  same  influence  whether  the  low- 
grade  and  impure  fuel  is  burnt  in  the  form  of  producer-gas  or 
by  direct  combustion;  in  fact,  the  effect  is  stronger  with  the 
gas,  as  has  been  shown  by  practice  and  of  which  I  have  convinced 
myself  by  corresponding  experiments.  I  believe  that  satisfac- 
tory results  will  be  obtained  with  gas-firing  only  when  it  is  pos- 
sible to  produce  gas  from  low-grade  fuel,  removing  from  the 
former  the  injurious  constituents  before  introducing  the  gas 
into  the  kiln." 

It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  the  limitations  made  by 
Seger  in  the  preceding  paragraph  are  not  of  universal  applica- 
tion, but  are  effective  only  where  the  constituents  of  the  gas 
would  have  a  deleterious  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  particular 
ceramic  product  under  treatment. 

§  252.    Advantages  of  producer-gas. 

1.  With  regeneration  appliances,  an  unlimited  intensity  may  be 
obtained,  and  the  combustion  of  the  gas  is  under  complete  control. 

2.  The  mildness  of  the  gas  flames  will  insure  the  best  results 
for  the   ceramic   product  under  treatment,   "since  a  mild  and 
diffused  heat  is  preferable  to  an  intense  local  heat  in  the  arches 
and  decreases  every  course  away  from  them." 

3.  "It  may  be  produced  from  the  cheaper  grades  of  fuel,  and 
makes  more  available  heat  than  is  possible  with  the  costliest 
fuel  used  in  the  ordinary  grate." 

4.  No  more  skilled  labor  required  than  with  grates,  the  ten- 
dency being  to  decrease  this. 

5.  Centralization  of  furnaces,  thereby  making  it  easier  to  handle 
fuel  by  mechanical  appliances. 


202     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

6.  Elimination  of  clinkering  in  kiln,  thereby  decreasing  the 
heat  losses  and  wear  on  the  kiln. 

7.  Steady  maintenance  of  a  uniform  heat. 

8.  More  uniform  burning. 

9.  Better  combustion;    this  is  discussed  in  detail   by  Orton 
(B  142).     "Another  source  of  economy  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
is  possible  to  approximate  much  more  closely  to  the  theoretical 
perfect  combustion.     To  burn  a  pound  of  coal  requires,  as  we 
know,   about   eleven   pounds   of  air  —  speaking   in  averages  - 


FIG.  87.  —  SECTION  OF  GAS-PRODUCER  FOR  KILN. 

yet  we  often  use  twenty-two  or  thirty-three  pounds,  or  even 
fifty-five  pounds  of  air  per  pound  of  coal  in  actual  operation. 
An  excess  of  300  per  cent  of  the  theoretical  amount  of  air  re- 
quired is  not  uncommon." 

"With  the  use  of  producer-gas,  it  is  quite  safely  possible  to 
cut  down  the  excess  of  air  in  cases  where  it  is  the  intention  merely 
to  consider  the  efficiency  of  heat  production.  In  clay  burning 
the  chemical  condition  of  the  atmosphere  is  often  most  impor- 
tant, and  all  questions  of  fuel  economy  must  be  considered  as 
secondary  to  this.  But  it  is  possible  in  the  use  of  gas  to  limit 


PRODUCER-GAS  FOR  FIRING  CERAMIC  KILNS. 


203 


the  excess  of  air  very  much  more  than  with  solid  fuel,  while 
still  maintaining  an  oxidizing  fire,  and  consequently  there  is 
much  less  heat  carried  out  as  sensible  heat  of  the  waste  gases, 
and  so  economy  may  come  in  that  way." 

§  253.    Types  of  gas-producers  for  ceramic  work. 

The  producer  shown  in  Fig.  87  is  an  integral  part  of  the  kiln 
proper.     A  is  the  charging  door;  B  is  an  inclined  grate  over  ash 


OW)<r><J^NSW^^ 
FIG.  88.  —  SECTION  OF  GAS-PRODUCER  FOR  KILN. 


pit  C.  The  air  for  the  producer  enters  at  D.  The  air  required 
for  the  combustion  of  the  gas  enters  at  E  and,  in  passing  through 
the  duct  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  becomes  pre-heated  and  then 
comes  out  at  F  and  meets  the  hot  gas  from  the  producer,  where 
combustion  begins  and  is  carried  out  into  the  chamber  G. 

The  producer  shown  in  Fig.  88  is  built  as  a  separate  structure 
from  the  kiln.  A  is  the  charging  lid,  which  is  kept  gas-tight  by 
means  of  a  water  seal.  B  is  the  gas  flue  to  combustion  chamber 


204    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

in  kiln.  C  and  D  are  grates,  the  former  being  so  arranged  that 
a  poker  may  be  inserted  through  the  horizontal  openings.  E  is 
the  ash  pit  kept  partially  filled  with  water  by  means  of  pipe  F, 
and  G  is  the  ash-pit  door. 

The    producers    shown    in    Fig.   89    and    90   are    practically 


FIG.  89.  —  SECTION  OF  GAS-PRODUCER  FOR  KILN. 

the  same  as  the  old  Siemens  type.  Referring  to  the  former,  A  is 
the  charging  hopper  with  swinging  valve  B.  C  is  a  poke  hole 
with  ball  cover,  and  D  is  the  gas  flue  to  the  combustion  chamber 
of  the  kiln.  E  is  a  solid  apron  and  F  is  a  grate  for  supporting 
the  fuel;  the  latter  may  be  poked  through  the  opening  G.  H  is 
the  ash  pit  partially  filled  with  water. 

The  producer  shown  in  Fig.  90  was  used  for  firing  a  French 
continuous  brick  kiln.  The  producer  shown  in  Fig.  91  is  a  Ger- 
man design  that  has  been  successfully  used  for  heating  a  muffle 


PRODUCER-GAS  FOR  FIRING  CERAMIC  KILNS. 


205 


pottery  kiln.  A  is  the  lid  to  the  charging  hopper  B,  which  is 
fitted  with  swinging  valve  C.  A  is  kept  tight  by  means  of  a  water 
seal.  D  is  the  body  of  the  producer,  the  fuel  resting  on  grates 
F  and  E,  the  latter  being  so  arranged  that  a  poker  may  be  in- 
serted through  the  horizontal  openings.  G  is  the  ash  pit,  H  are 
poke  and  inspection  openings.  7  is  a  valve.  J  is  the  main  air 
duct  with  port  K,  which  has  a  grating  L.  M  and  N  are  com- 
bustion chambers.  0  is  the  muffle  kiln.  The  gas  from  D  comes 


GAS  FLUE 

TO 

KILN 


FIG.  90.  —  SECTION  OF  GAS-PRODUCER  FOR  KILN. 


through  7  and  then  meets  the  air  coming  up  from  K  through  L 
—  the  object  of  L  being  to  divide  the  air  up  into  small  streams; 
this  assists  in  the  combustion  of  the  gas;  i.e.,  the  gas  can  be 
burned  with  a  smaller  excess  of  air. 

The  producer  shown  in  Fig.  92  is  also  a  German  design  and  is 
used  in  heating  a  continuous  brick  kiln.  A  is  the  body  of  the 
producer  with  charging  hopper  B  and  ash  pit  C;  no  grates  are 
used  in  this,  the  fuel  simply  resting  on  the  bottom.  D  is  the 
gas  flue  to  combustion  chamber  G.  E  is  the  main  air  duct  and 


206    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


FIG.  91.  —  GAS-PRODUCER  FOR  MUFFLE  KILN. 


PRODUCER-GAS  FOR  FIRING  CERAMIC  KILNS. 


207 


has  a  port  F.  The  air  for  gasification  of  the  fuel  comes  in  through 
C,  while  the  air  for  the  combustion  of  the  gas  enters  at  E 
and  F. 

A  Swindell  gas-producer  connected  to  a  rotary  cement  kiln  is 
shown  in  Fig.  93  and  94.  This  is  a  modified  design  of  the  pro- 
ducer shown  in  Fig.  26  and  28.  J  are  air-heating  pipes  which 


FIG.  92.  —  GAS-PRODUCER  FOR  CONTINUOUS  BRICK  KILN. 


are  connected  to  the  circular  chambers  K  and  L.  M  are  air 
ports  which  lead  to  the  kiln  N.  Here  the  gas  from  flue  0 
mixes  with  the  pre-heated  air  and  is  burned.  The  pre-heating 
is  accomplished  by  the  heat  radiated  through  the  producer  wall, 
which  contains  the  pipes  /. 


208    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


PRODUCER-GAS  FOR  FIRING  CERAMIC  KILNS.  209 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

PRODUCER-GAS    FOR    FIRING    STEAM    BOILERS. 

§  254.    Field  for  use. 

There  are  only  two  classes  of  plants  where  the  use  of  producer- 
gas  for  firing  steam  boilers  may  be  justified,  in  the  light  of  present- 
day  gas  engine  economy.  First,  in  plants  that  require  steam 
or  hot  water  in  the  process  of  manufacture,  as  the  soap  and 
paper  industries.  Second,  in  existing  steam  plants  where  the 
change  to  gas  power  cannot  be  made,  and  yet  where  it  is  desir- 
able to  eliminate  the  smoke  nuisance.  Producer-gas  -will  give 
better  results  than  direct  firing  in  either  of  the  cases  named,  but 
in  new  plants  for  power  generation  it  should  be  used  directly  in 
the  gas  engine  and  thus  eliminate  the  boiler  entirely. 

§  255.   Principle. 

To  secure  complete  combustion  in  any  furnace  and  with  any 
fuel,  it  is  imperative  to  have  an  intimate  mixture  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  and  the  combustibles,  and  also  to  maintain  a  tempera- 
ture high  enough  to  allow  the  chemical  reactions  to  take  place 
freely.  The  use  of  any  solid  fuel,  even  in  small  pieces,  does  not 
permit  the  full  realization  of  this  requirement.  Only  the  surfaces 
of  the  pieces  of  fuel  can  be  reached  by  the  oxygen,  and  even 
then  an  excess  of  air  must  be  used,  which  results  in  a  lowering 
of  the  temperature  and  decreased  chemical  activity  and  the 
inevitable  incomplete  combustion.  As  a  result  of  the  latter 
point,  the  heating  surface  of  the  boiler  will  be  coated  with  soot, 
thus  diminishing  its  evaporating  power  and  also  producing 
•  dense  smoke.  Further,  the  alternate  heating  and  cooling  of 
the  boiler,  which  results  from  the  irregular  and  incomplete  com- 
bustion and  the  opening  of  firing  doors,  produces  abnormal 
strains  which  decrease  its  life  to  a  great  extent. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  the  use  of  gaseous  fuel  is  to 
secure  complete  combustion  with  a  minimum  air  excess.  This 
is  made  possible  by  the  thorough  mixture  of  the  oxygen  and  the 

210 


PRODUCER-GAS  FOR  FIRING  STEAM  BOILERS.          211 

gas  during  combustion,  a  requirement  which  is  not  feasible  with 
any  other  fuel. 

§  256.    Advantages. 

1.  With  gas,  complete  combustion  may  be  secured  with  prac- 
tically no  more  than  the  theoretical  amount  of  air. 

2.  It  is  much  easier  to  maintain  a  maximum  economy  than 
with  solid  fuel. 

3.  Personal   feelings   or   indifference   of   the    firemen   do   not 
affect  the  operation  of  the  boiler,  and  steaming  is  much  more 
regular. 

4.  Gas-firing  of  boilers  presents  an  adequate,  economical,  and 
practical    solution    for    the    smoke    nuisance.     The    entire    pre- 
vention of  smoke  is  decidedly  better  than  attempts  to  "  consume  " 
it.     To  prevent  the  formation  of  smoke,  it  is  imperative  that  the 
combustion   be   practically   complete   before   the   gases   impinge 
on  the  cold  surfaces  of  the  boiler;  thus  the  deposition  or  con- 
densation of  unburned  particles  of  carbon  is  prevented. 

5.  With  gaseous  fuel,  the  life  of  the  boiler  is  much  longer,  due 
to  the  elimination  of  the  excessive  strains  produced  by  alternate 
heating  and  cooling  caused  by  hand  firing. 

6.  Less  labor  is  required,  including  the  operation  of  the  pro- 
ducers, since  they  may  be  charged  with  fuel  much  more  easily 
than  a  steam  boiler. 

§  257.    Requirements. 

It  is  exceedingly  important  to  secure  a  thorough  admixture 
of  the  gas  and  air  before  they  enter  the  combustion  chamber. 
In  a  boiler,  the  heating  must  be  entirely  by  radiation;  from  this 
it  follows  that  a  highly  radiative  flame  is  required.  As  thus  a 
luminous  flame  is  necessary  the  tar  must  not  be  removed  from 
the  gas.  If  possible,  the  air  for  combustion  should  be  pre-heated. 

§  258.    Results. 

In  general,  no  economy  of  fuel  will  result  by  first  gasifying 
solid  fuel  in  a  gas-producer  and  then  burning  the  resulting .  gas 
under  a  steam  boiler.  The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  such 
an  arrangement  usually  lie  in  other  directions,  and  are  given 
elsewhere.  (See  §  256.) 

However,  the  results  obtained  by  Blauvelt  (B  78),  and  given 
below,  are  an  exception.  The  application  of  producer-gas  to 
return  tubular  boilers,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  given 


212     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

in  §§  255  and  257,  "resulted  in  the  prevention  of  all  smoke  and  an 
increase  in  the  evaporation  capacity  of  the  boilers  by  over  12 
per  cent,  as  compared  with  the  results  of  the  same  coal  burned 
on  the  grate.  At  the  same  time  there  was  a  saving  of  about  15 
per  cent  in  the  amount  of  fuel  used." 


FIG.  95.  —  PRODUCER-GAS-FIRED  WATER-TUBE  BOILER. 


§  259.    Method  of  firing. 

There  have  been  three  general  types  of  producers  or  methods 
used  in  firing  steam  boilers  with  producer-gas.  The  first  is  simi- 
lar to  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  93  and  Fig.  94,  the  boiler 
taking  the  place  of  the  kiln.  An  English  design  of  the  second 
type  is  shown  in  Fig.  95.  Here  the  producer  may  be  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  boiler,  the  gas  being  brought  to  the 
boiler  by  pipe  A  which  delivers  the  gas  to  chamber  B.  The 
air  for  combustion  enters  at  C.  D  is  a  perforated  arch  through 
which  the  gas  and  air  pass,  and  in  so  doing  they  become  thor- 
oughly mixed.  E  is  a  door  for  lighting  the  gas.  (B  106.) 

A  modified  form  of  the  Swindell  gas-producer  represents  the 
third  type.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  96.  It  consists  of  grates  A, 
water-sealed  ash  pan  B,  steam  blower  C,  and  fuel  door  D.  The 
air  for  the  combustion  of  the  gas  is  introduced  through  the  duct 


PRODUCER-GAS  FOR  FIRING  STEAM  BOILERS. 


213 


E;  part  of  it  enters  the  vertical  port  F,  and  the  remainder  enters 
at  H  through  port  G.  This  secures  a  pre-heating  of  the  air 
before  it  meets  the  gas. 

Of  the  three  types,  the  last  is  the  best.  However,  a  better 
arrangement  would  be  to  build  the  producer  out  in  front  of  the 
boiler  setting,  but  an  integral  part  of  it,  thus  making  it  possible 
to  feed  the  fuel  into  the  producer  by  gravity. 


FIG.  96.  —  APPLICATION  OF  GAS-PRODUCER  TO  STEAM  BOILERS. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

WOOD    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  260.    Field  for  use. 

There  are  many  places  where  coal  is  not  available  as  a  fuel 
and  in  such  cases  a  cheap  substitute  must  be  provided.  Some- 
times wood  is  the  only  fuel  that  can  be  secured.  Further,  in 
some  industries,  large  quantities  of  wood  refuse,  such  as  sawdust, 
bark,  shavings,  and  irregular  pieces  of  lumber,  accumulate  and 
must  be  disposed  of.  If  is  evident  that  an  inexpensive  system 
of  generating  power  from  such  material  is  a  great  desideratum. 
There  are  many  plants  that  have  enough  such  refuse  to  generate 
all  their  power  by  means  of  producer-gas.  The  gas-producer 
presents  a  practical  solution  for  this  problem,  and  it  will  un- 
doubtedly be  used  extensively  in  this  country  for  such  work  in 
the  future.  In  the  past,  the  most  extensive  development  has 
been  in  France  and  Sweden.  The  producers  described  in  §§  262 
and  263  are  Swedish,  while  those  described  in  §  §  264  and  265  are 
French  designs. 

§  261.    Types  of  producers. 

There  are  two  general  classes;  the  distillation  type,  where  the 
wood  is  distilled  in  a  closed  retort,  and  the  combustion  type, 
which  is  similar  to  the  ordinary  coal-gas  producer.  The  chemical 
reactions  of  gasification  in  either  type  are  similar  to  those  taking 
place  when  coal  is  used  for  fuel.  The  Loomis  producer  shown 
in  Fig.  47  has  been  used  successfully  for  the  gasification  of 
wood.  (B281.) 

§  262.   Lundin  flat-grate  gas-producer. 

This  is  shown  in  Fig.  97.  A  is  a  rectangular  body  with  charg- 
ing hopper  B,  flat  wrought-iron  grate  C,  closed  ash  pit  E  and 
blast  pipe  D.  F  is  the  gas  condenser,  the  upper  part  of  which 
is  arranged  with  checkerwork  of  iron  bars  H.  G  are  water- 
spray  pipes,  and  /  is  the  gas  outlet.  The  object  of  the  condenser 
is  to  remove  the  moisture,  tar,  and  acetic  acid  in  the  gas  by  coal- 

214 


WOOD  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


215 


ing  the  gas  and  thus  condensing  the  impurities.  In  other  words, 
the  gas  is  dried  by  wetting  it.  The  water  which  accumulates  at 
the  bottom  of  F  must  be  drained  away  continuously.  As  this 
water  is  saturated  with  impurities  which  will  have  a  polluting 
effect  on  any  stream  into  which  it  is  discharged,  care  must  be 
used  in  its  disposal. 


FIG.  97.  —  LUNDIN  FLAT-GRATE  GAS-PRODUCER. 

§  263.    Lundin  stepped-grate  gas-producer. 

The  construction  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  98.  It  is  of  the  blast- 
furnace type,  and  consists  of  a  circular  shaft  about  20  feet  high. 
A  is  the  stepped  grate  over  the  closed  ash  pit  B.  The  latter  is 
supplied  with  blast  from  four  pipes,  two  of  which  are  shown 
at  C.  D  is  the  body  of  the  producer  with  gas  exit-  E  and  charg- 
ing hopper  F,  which  is  fitted  with  a  water-sealed  lid,  G.  The 
impurities  in  the  gas  are  removed  by  means  of  a  Wiman  surface 
gas  cooler,  as  shown  in  Fig.  78. 

§  264.    Riche  distillation  gas-producer. 
The  section  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  99,  while  the  assembly  is 


216     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

shown  in  Fig.  100.     The  fundamental  principle  of  the  producer 
is  to  secure  the  destructive  distillation  of  the  wood  placed  in  a 


FIG.  98.  —  LUNDIN  STEPPED-GRATE  GAS-PRODUCER. 

vertical,  externally  heated  retort.     Referring  to  Fig.  99,  the  fuel 
to  be  gasified  is  introduced  into  the  vertical  retort  denoted   by 


WOOD  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


217 


FIG.  99.  —  HALF  SECTION  OF  RICHE  DISTILLATION  WOOD  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


218     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  OAS-PRODUCERS. 

A  and  B  by  means  of  the  door  placed  on  its  top.  The  heating 
of  the  retort  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  fire  in  chamber  F, 
the  products  of  combustion  passing  through  ports  E  and  up 
around  the  vertical  retort  and  out  through  exit  ports  H,  valve  /, 
and  chimney  flue  J.  The  draft  is  regulated  by  the  valve  7. 
Since  the  combustion  products  first  come  in  contact  with  the 
lower  end  of  the  vertical  retort,  it  is  evident  that  they  will  give 
up  a  large  portion  of  their  heat  before  they  reach  the  exit  port  H. 
As  a  result,  the  lower  end  of  the  vertical  retort  will  be  much 


ASSEMBLY 

GAS-PRODUCER. 


hotter  than  its  upper  end.  R  is  a  peep  hole  covered  with  mica, 
which  permits  the  operator  to  observe  the  temperature  of  the 
vertical  retort  and  thereupon  regulate  the  rate  of  combustion 
by  means  of  valve  7.  C  is  a  foot  chamber  for  the  vertical  retort 
and  is  connected  to  it  by  a  cemented  joint  composed  of  a  special 
refractory  cement.  Y  is  made  removable  so  as  to  secure  access 
to  this  joint.  K  is  a  water  seal  that  communicates  with  the  gas 


WOOD  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


219 


holder;  the  object  of  K  is  to  prevent  gas  coming  back  into  C 
when  the  retort  is  being  charged  with  fresh  fuel.  M  is  a  pipe 
for  connecting  K  with  the  gooseneck  L. 

The  vertical   retorts   are  surrounded  by  brickwork   and   each 
one  has   its   own   combustion   chamber  lined  with  firebrick,  as 


V-i 


Jl— i 


JLJL 


JLJ_ 


Jl— JL 


J L 


JLJL 


Jl— JL 


FIG.  101. — SECTION  OF  RICHE  DOUBLE-COMBUSTION  WOOD  GAS-PRODUCER. 

shown  by  G.  One  fuel  chamber  F  may  be  made  to  serve  a  num- 
ber of  the  retorts.  The  life  of  a  retort  is  about  eight  months. 
The  brickwork  is  held  together  by  tie  rods  and  bucks t ays,  as 
shown  in  the  illustrations. 


220      A   TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

The  lower  zone  A  of  the  vertical  retort  is  filled  with  charcoal, 
the  green  wood  being  reduced  to  that  form  by  the  time  it  reaches 
A.  All  the  gases  and  vapors  given  cff  from  zone  B  must  pass 
down  through  the  incandescent  charcoal  in  A.  By  so  doing, 
the  vapors  are  converted  into  fixed  gases  and  the  CO2  reduced 
to  CO. 

§  265.    Riche  double-combustion  gas-producers. 

The  section  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  101  and  an  assembly  in 
Fig.  102.  It  receives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  consists  of 


FIG.  102.  —  ASSEMBLY  OF  RICHE  DOUBLE  COMBUSTION  WOOD  GAS-?RODUCER. 

two  producers  working  together,  the  raw  fuel  being  charged 
into  one  and  the  resulting  gas  passed  through  a  mass  of  incan- 
descent carbon  in  the  other.  Referring  to  Fig.  101,  B  is  the 
producer  that  contains  the  raw  fuel  which  is  introduced  by 
means  of  door  S  that  is  held  in  position  by  clamp  r.  C  is  similar 
to  B,  but  is  filled  with  coke  or  charcoal  by  means  of  door  T  which 
is  held  in  position  by  clamp  s.  t  is  the  gas  exit.  R  and  Q  are 
cleaning  doors  held  in  position  by  clamps  q  and  p  respectively. 
P  is  a  chamber  connecting  B  and  C  and  is  surrounded  by  a  mass 


WOOD  GAS-PRODUCERS.  221 

of  thick  masonry  A.  o  is  the  ash  zone  of  B.  g  are  grates  that  are 
supported  on  frame  J ',  which  may  be  adjusted  by  nut  ra.  By 
means  of  this  adjustment  the  position  of  the  grate  bars  may  be 
changed.  6  is  the  blast  inlet  pipe,  o  is  a  pipe  which  delivers 
water  on  to  the  grates  g.  c  is  an  auxiliary  blast  pipe. 

By  regulating  the  amount  of  blast  admitted  at  c,  it  is  possible 
to  vary  the  intensity  of  combustion  in  C.  This  secures  a  regu- 
lation of  the  temperature  of  C,  and  as  a  result  of  this  the  amount 
of  reduction  taking  place  in  C  is  also  regulated.  By  this  means 
it  is  possible  to  so  adjust  the  producer  as  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  CO3  to  a  minimum. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

REMOVAL    OF    TAR    FROM   GAS. 

§  266.    Object  and  difficulties  of  removal. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  remove  the  tar  from  gas  that  is 
to  be  used  in  gas  engines,  and  there  are  many  other  cases  where 
the  removal  would  be  desirable.  The  use  of  tar-laden  gas  in  an 
engine  wrill  soon  cause  the  engine  valves  to  stick  and  the  ports 
to  become  closed.  This  is  the  specific  objection  against  its 
presence  in  the  gas.  Since  the  gasification  of  bituminous  coal 
will  always  result  in  the  formation  of  tar,  it  is  evident  that  the 
use  of  bituminous  coal  for  gas  power  depends  on  the  removal  of 
the  tar  from  the  gas.  The  problem  is  a  very  difficult  one  on 
account  of  the  complex  nature  of  the  tar,  and  in  a  large  measure 
the  extensive  future  development  of  the  producer-gas  power 
industry  depends  on  its  successful  solution. 

In  other  words,  the  problem  of  the  use  of  bituminous  coal  for 
gas  power  is  the  problem  of  the  elimination  of  the  tar  from  the 
gas.  There  are  now  several  producers  on  the  market  that  are 
in  successful  use  with  bituminous  coal  for  power-gas  purposes. 

§267.    Nature  of  tar.     (B  40.)  !. 

Tar  is  one  of  the  products  of  the  destructive  distillation  of 
fuel.  It  is  a  highly  complex  mixture  of  a  large  number  of  chemi- 
cal compounds.  The  exact  composition  and  nature  will  depend 
on  the  raw  fuel  constituents,  temperature  and  pressure  in,  and 
form  of,  vessel  in  which  the  destructive  distillation  takes  place. 
There  are  two  principal  classes  of  tar  —  First,  wood  tar,  from 
the  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  and  second,  coal  tar,  from 
the  destructive  distillation  of  coal.  These  tars  are  closely  re- 
lated to  the  petroleum,  asphalt,  and  bitumen  obtained  from  nature. 

Tar  consists  of  hydrocarbons,  oxygenized,  sulphureted, 
chlorinated,  and  nitrogenized  compounds.  There  are  nearly  two 
hundred  of  these  and  their  complexity  is  such  that,  even  with 
the  advanced  knowledge  and  methods  of  technical  chemical  re- 

222 


REMOVAL  OF  TAR  FROM  GAS.  223 

search  of  the  present  day,  very  little  is  known  about  some  of 
them.  Many  of  these  can  be  separated  only  by  means  of  frac- 
tional distillation.  The  ordinary  ones  are  marsh  gas  (CH4), 
paraffine  (C17H36  to  C27H56),  ethylene  (C2H4),  acetylene  (C2H2), 
benzene  (C6H6),  naphthalene  (C10H8),  anthracene  (C14H10),  acetic 
acid  (C2H4O2),  creosote,  carbolic  acid  (C6H8O),  hydrogen  sulphate 
(H2S),  ammonium  sulphide  (NH4)2S,  sulphur  dioxide  (SO2), 
ammonium  chloride  (NH4C1),  ammonia  (NH3),  and  aniline 
(C6H7N). 

Coal  tar  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.1  to  1.2,  is  black,  but  some- 
times has  yellow  streaks  due  to  the  presence  of  sulphur,  is  vis- 
cous and  has  a  very  penetrating  odor.  Wood  tar  has  a  strong 
odor,  an  acid  taste  due  to  the  acetic  acid,  and  may  sometimes 
have  a  dark  brown  color. 

J  268.    Influence  of  temperature. 

The  quality,  quantity,  and  behavior  of  tar  is  greatly  influenced 
by  the  temperature  at  which  the  decomposition  of  the  coal  takes 
place.  High  temperatures  are  conducive  to  the  formation  of 
small  amounts  of  tar  and  large  quantities  of  fixed  gases,  and 
vice  versa  for  low  temperatures.  Tar  brought  in  close  contact 
with  incandescent  carbon  is  broken  up  into  fixed  gases.  The 
cooling  of  tar-laden  gas  has  a  tendency  to  precipitate  the  tar. 

§  269.    Elimination  of  tar. 

There  are  three  general  methods  for  removing  the  tar  from  the 
gas,  and  they  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

1.  Mechanical  separation. 

2.  Washing. 

a.  Tower  scrubbers. 

b.  Deflectors. 

c.  Mechanical  sprays. 

3.  Destruction. 

a.  Inverted  combustion. 

6.  Removal  of  gas  in  middle  of  producer. 

c.  Circulation  of  distillation  products. 

d.  Distillation  retort. 

e.  Passing  gas  through  separate  coke  chamber. 
/.  Underfeeding. 

Mechanical  separation  involves  the  use  of  rotating  scrubbers, 
as  discussed  in  §  223. 


224     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Washing  by  tower  scrubbers  may  be  used  if  the  gas  is  not  too 
heavily  laden  with  tar.  This  is  the  method  used  in  the  Mond 
process,  already  described  in  §  229.  The  principle  and  method 
of  operation  of  deflectors  is  discussed  under  §  219.  The  me- 
chanical spray  is  a  device  for  bringing  the  gas  and  tar;  when  the 
latter  is  in  the  form  of  a  fine  mist,  into  intimate  contact  and  thus 


FIG.  103.  —  SECTION  OF  DUFF-WHITFIELD  GAS-PRODUCER, 

condense  the  tar  into  small  globules  which  may  then  be  more 
easily  separated  from  the  gas.  The  water  must  be  used  with 
considerable  pressure  so  that  the  spray  will  be  fine,  in  order  to 
make  it  effective. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  two  classes  of  eliminating  devices 
just  mentioned  deal  exclusively  with  the  removal  of  the  tar 
carried  by  the  gas.  Now,  it  is  self-evident  that  the  prevention 


REMOVAL  OF  TAR  FROM  GAS. 


225 


of  a  trouble  is  always  very  much  better  than  after  attempts 
to  rectify  it;  therefore,  the  prevention  of  the  formation  of  tar  in 
the  gas  is  preferable  to  any  after  attempt  of  tar  removal.  In 
other  words,  secure  the  destruction  of  the  tar  in  the  producer 
and  thus  eliminate  the  trouble  of  its  removal  from  the  gas.  This 
is  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  destruction  type  of  tar  eliminators. 


FIG.  104.  —  SECTION  OF  POETTER  GAS-PRODUCER. 

They  all  depend  on  the  fundamental  principle  of  bringing  the  tar 
in  the  distillation  products  into  intimate  contact  with  an  incan- 
descent mass  of  carbon. 

The  object  of  the  inverted  combustion  type  is  to  cause  the 
products  of  the  destructive  distillation  of  the  fresh  fuel  to  pass 


226     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


FIG.  105.  —  SECTION  OF  WILSON  GAS-PRODUCER. 


FIG.  106.  —  SECTION  OF  CAPITAINE  SOFT-COAL 
PRODUCER. 

(Courtesy  of  Engineering  Magazine.) 


REMOVAL  OF  TAR  FROM  GAS.  227 

down  and  through  the  incandescent  mass  of  carbon  underneath 
and  thus  become  converted  into  fixed  gases.  The  producers 
shown  in  Fig.  14  and  47  are  of  this  type. 

The  removal  of  the  gas  in  the  middle  of  the  producer  and  the 
circulation  of  the  distillation  products  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  103. 
A  is  the  main  gas  outlet.  B  and  C,  D  and  E,  respectively,  are 
outlets  and  inlets  for  the  distillation  products. 

The  distillation  retort  is  shown  applied  to  the  Mond  producer 
in  Fig.  82,  the  Wilson  producer  in  Fig.  105,  and  the  Poetter 
producer  in  Fig.  104.  In  the  Mond  and  Wilson  producers  the 
distillation  products  must  pass  down  through  the  fuel;  in  the 
Poetter  there  is  a  pipe  between  the  retort  and  the  ash  pit  by 
means  of  which  the  distillation  products  may  pass  up  through 
the  fuel. 

The  passing  of  the  gas  through  a  separate  coke  chamber  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  14  and  Fig.  101.  The  same  idea  is  used  in 
producers  working  in  pairs  —  i.e.,  where  the  blast  goes  up 
through  one  fuel  bed  and  the  resulting  gas  down  the  other. 
The  Loomis  (§  201)  may  be  used  in  this  way. 

The  principle  of  underfeeding  is  shown  in  Fig.  106,  the  idea 
being  that,  by  introducing  the  fresh  fuel  at  the  bottom  of  the 
fuel  bed,  the  resulting  distillation  products  must  pass  up  through 
the  incandescent  fuel. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

GAS-PRODUCER    POWER    PLANTS. 

§  270.   Status. 

The  installation  of  the  gas-producer  power  plant  in  America 
has  been  so  unusual  that  all  engineers  have  viewed  it  with  in- 
terest; a  large  majority,  however,  regard  it  with  a  lack  of  con- 
fidence and  many  with  positive  distrust.  Despite  the  fact  that 
European  engineers  have  usually  been  less  inclined  to  take  the 
initiative  along  experimental  lines  than  are  Americans,  they 
have,  nevertheless,  developed  the  gas-producer  plant  to  a  very 
high  state  of  efficiency,  to  which  they  were  forced  by  the  necessity 
of  economy  in  fuel  consumption. 

The  gas-producer  power  plant  is  so  common  in  Europe  that 
engineers  as  well  as  the  general  public  regard  it  with  the  same 
degree  of  confidence  that  is  now  universally  placed  in  steam 
plants.  Gas  engines,  both  small  and  large,  are  in  general  use 
there,  and  central  stations,  aggregating  several  thousand  horse- 
power, are  quite  numerous. 

The  fact  that  gas-producer  power  plants  have  received  so  little 
attention  in  America  may  be  attributed  to  five  conditions:  (1) 
Ignorance  and  prejudice;  (2)  newness  of  work;  (3)  inadaptability 
of  gas  engines;  (4)  fuel  economy  not  imperative;  (5)  smoke 
nuisance  not  given  attention. 

§  271.    Ignorance  and  prejudice. 

The  only  literature  pertaining  to  gas-producer  power  plants 
is  that  found  in  the  various  technical  journals  and  in  the  trans- 
actions of  engineering  and  other  technical  societies.  In  many 
cases  the  papers  are  of  a  fragmentary  character,  and  seldom  are 
they  complete  or  comprehensive.  It  may  be  that  the  lack  of 
reliable  data  available  to  engineers  is  the  cause  of  the  ignorance 
and  prejudice  that  exist  concerning  this  important  branch  of 
engineering. 

§  272.    Newness  of  work. 

The  manufacture  of  producer-gas  is  an  old  process,  and  gas 

228 


GAS-PRODUCER  POWER  PLANTS.  229 

engines  have  been  developed  to  a  very  high  stage  of  mechanical 
efficiency,  hence  there  is  no  valid  reason  why  such  installations 
should  be  regarded  as  experimental. 

The  Winchester  Repeating  Arms  Co.,  at  its  plant  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  has  a  Loomis-Pettibone  gas-producer  plant,  built  primarily 
to  furnish  gas  for  fuel  purposes  (such  as  for  annealing  ovens, 
furnaces,  etc.);  a  100-h.p.  Westinghouse  gas  engine  was  installed 
some  time  ago,  and  later  three  direct-connected  units,  each  of 
175  h.p.,  have  been  ordered.  At  the  present  time  this  example 
is  one  of  the  best  instances  in  America  of  an  industrial  producer- 
gas  plant  where  gas  is  furnished  both  for  fuel  and  for  power. 

The  following  list  comprises  some  of  the  larger  gas-producer 
power  plants  now  in  operation  in  America : 

Moctezuma  Copper  Co.,  Nacozari,  Sonora,  Mexico.     (B  281.) 

The  Guggenheim  Exploration  Co.,  700  h.p.,  Santa  Barbara, 
Chihuahua,  Mexico. 

Detroit  Copper  Mining  Co.,  1000  h.p.,  Morenci,  Ariz. 

Rockland  Electric  Co.,  1000  h.p.,  Hillburn,  N.  Y. 

Potosina  Electric  Co.,  600  h.p.,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico. 

Valerdeiia  Mining  and  Smelting  Co.,  2000  h.p.,  Valardena, 
Durango,  Mexico. 

The  Sayles  Bleacheries,  250  h.p.,  Saylersville,  R,  I. 

It  is  obvious  that  much  has  already  been  accomplished  in  this 
important  field  of  power  generation. 

§  273.    Inadaptability  of  gas  engines. 

No  gas-producer  power  plant  can  be  successful  unless  the  gas 
engine  is  adapted  to  suit  the  particular  gas  available  for  its  use. 
On  the  authority  of  Westinghouse,  Church,  Kerr  &  Co.,*  an  engine 
which  will  develop  100  h.p.  with  natural  gas  will  give  only  about 
80  h.p.  with  producer-gas  —  a  loss  of  20  per  cent.  With  a  200- 
h.p.  engine,  this  loss  would  be  about  15  per  cent,  and  with  sizes 
above  300  h.p.  it  would  be  about  10  per  cent.  Further,  in  the 
suction  type  of  gas-producer,  about  4  per  cent  of  the  power  of 
the  engine  will  be  consumed  in  drawing  the  gas  through  the 
producer  and  scrubbers.  This  negative  work  will  vary  with 
the  kind  of  fuel,  type  of  producer,  and  the  frictional  resistance 
offered  by  the  different  types  of  gas-cleaning  apparatus.  Hence 
the  obvious  necessity  of  using  an  engine  adapted  to  the  gas  that 

*  Private  communication. 


230     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

is  to  be  used  therein,  and  of  making  due  allowance  for  the  nega- 
tive work.  Several  failures  have  been  made  by  neglecting  this 
important  point. 

§  274.    Fuel  economy  has  not  been  imperative. 

In  the  list  of  plants  just  given,  it  will  be  noticed  that  most  of 
them  are  in  remote  regions  where  the  cost  of  fuel  is  high,  hence 
the  high  economy  of  the  gas-producer  plant  was  a  feature  that 
commended  itself. 

§  275.    Smoke  nuisance. 

A  good  gas-producer,  by  the  very  nature  of  its  construction 
and  operation,  does  not  allow  the  smoke  to  escape  into  the  at- 
mosphere; hence,  the  gas-producer  itself  presents  a  practical 
solution  for  the  elimination  of  the  smoke  nuisance.  The  non- 
requirement  of  a  chimney  means  a  large  saving  in  the  first  cost 
and  in  the  maintenance  of  a  power  plant,  and  is  an  additional  ad- 
vantage in  plants  where  the  esthetic  features  of  the  design  are  of 
importance  —  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  a  municipal  power  plant. 

The  laxity  of  the  laws  regarding  the  smoke  nuisance  has  not 
made  it  imperative  for  manufacturers  to  give  attention  to  the 
prevention  of  smoke.  As  soon  as  regulations  concerning  the 
smoke  nuisance  are  enforced,  the  gas-producer  industry  will 
receive  a  new  impetus  on  account  of  the  easy  solution  that  the 
gas-producer  plant  offers  for  this  trouble. 

§276.    Labor. 

The  cost  of  labor  required  to  operate  a  pressure  gas-producer 
plant  is  about  the  same  as  that  required  in  a  steam  plant  of 
similar  size.  With  the  suction  gas-producer  the  labor  will  be 
much  less.  However,  during  the  time  that  a  gas-producer  plant 
is  idle,  it  requires  less  attention  than  does  a  steam  boiler. 

In  the  case  of  a  municipal  pumping  station,  the  labor  required 
to  operate  the  producer-gas  plant  would  be  one-half  that  of  a 
similar  steam  plant,  the  gas  plant  being  operated  as  follows: 
The  gas-producers  are  to  use  coal  for  supplying  the  gas  to  operate 
a  three-cylinder  vertical  gas  engine  direct  connected  to  a  triplex 
double-acting  power  pump.  In  this  case,  the  usual  fire  engine 
will  be  dispensed  with  and,  should  a  fire  occur,  the  requisite 
pressure  will  be  obtained  by  pumping  directly  into  the  system. 
For  ordinary  domestic  supply  the  pump  will  deliver  the  water 
into  a  water  tower,  from  which  the  mains  will  receive  the  supply 


GAS-PRODUCER  POWER  PLANTS.  231 

as  needed.  In  every  case  the  maximum  quantity  of  water 
required  during  a  fire  is  much  larger  than  the  average  domestic 
consumption;  hence  the  pump  must  be  designed  for  this  maxi- 
mum quantity.  As  a  result,  the  working  of  the  pump  at  its 
full  capacity  for  6  out  of  24  hours  would  furnish  enough  water 
for  the  daily  domestic  consumption;  the  pump  would  usually  be 
operated  from  7  to  10  A.M.  and  from  3  to  6  P.M.  A  gas  holder 
of  sufficient  capacity  to  run  the  pump  for  30  minutes  is  to  be 
filled  before  the  producers  are  closed  down. 

Compressed  air  is  to  be  used  to  start  the  engine,  which  may 
be  put  into  motion  simply  by  moving  a  lever. 

The  engineer  is  to  live  adjacent  to  the  plant  so  that,  when  an 
alarm  is  sent  in  to  the  hose  company,  simultaneously  with  alarms 
to  the  engineer's  home  and  to  the  plant,  it  would  be  possible 
for  the  engineer  to  have  the  pump  at  work  direct  into  the  system 
by  the  time  the  fire  company  could  reach  the  fire  and  make 
hose  connections. 

Since  the  gas  holder,  would  supply  the  engine  until  the  pro- 
ducers could  be  started,  the  above  scheme  eliminates  the  neces- 
sity of  a  night  fireman  and  the  keeping  up  of  at  least  70  Ib.  of 
steam-pressure  in  a  steam  plant.  A  similar  arrangement  could 
be  equally  well  adapted  for  fire  purposes  in  connection  with  large 
industrial  plants. 

With  regard  to  the  skill  required,  a  producer-gas  power  plant 
does  not  require  any  greater  skilled  labor  than  does  a  steam  plant 
of  similar  size;  however,  in  some  cases,  it  may  require  time  for 
men,  trained  to  handle  steam  apparatus,  to  become  accustomed 
to  gas  engines  and  gas-producers. 

§  277.    Cost  of  installation. 

Two  well-known  engineering  concerns  give  the  following  data: 
"The  cost  of  gas-power  plants,  including  gas-generating  plant 
and  gas  engines,  up  to  500  h.p.,  is  about  25  per  cent  higher  than 
the  cost  of  a  steam  plant  of  similar  size.  Large  plants,  from 
1000  h.p.  upwards,  cost  about  the  same  as  a  first-class  steam 
plant  of  similar  size."* 

§  278.    Cost  of  repairs. 

The  cost  of  repairs  on  a  gas-producer  plant  will  not  exceed 
that  of  a  boiler  plant. 

*  Private  communication. 


232      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  279.    Use  of  cheap  fuels. 

In  order  that  a  gas-producer  plant  shall  be  commercially  suc- 
cessful, it  must  be  able  to  make,  from  a  low-priced  fuel,  gas  that 
is  sufficiently  clean  for  use  in  an  engine.  Bituminous  slack  is 
usually  the  lowest  priced  fuel  to  be  had;  however,  anthracite- 
culm,  or  even  wood,  may  be  cheaper  in  some  localities.  In  all 
cases  the  percentage  of  sulphur  must  be  low  if  the  gas  is  to  be 
used  in  a  gas  engine.  Even  with  the  usual  price  of  anthracite 
coal,  coke,  or  charcoal,  the  gas-producer  power  plant  will  generate 
power  much  cheaper  than  a  steam  plant  on  bituminous  slack. 
Frequently  the  use  of  a  mechanically  washed  coal  will  be  eco- 
nomical. 

§  280.    Scrubbing  of  gas. 

The  only  uniformly  reliable  way  to  remove  tar  and  other 
hydrocarbons  from  gas  made  from  soft  coal  is  to  have  the  pro- 
ducer so  arranged  that  the  gas  comes  in  close  contact  with  an 
incandescent  mass  of  carbon.  No  mechanical  means  has  yet 
been  found  to  be  thoroughly  successful  in  removing  tar, 
although  several  forms  of  centrifugal  apparatus  are  in  use. 
For  the  removal  of  fine  dust  particles,  however,  rotating  scrub- 
bers have  proved  very  satisfactory.  (See  Chapters  17  and  23, 
and  §223.) 

§  281.    Fuel  economy  during  hours  of  idleness. 

The  stand-by  loss  of  heat  is  very  small,  being  limited  to  radia- 
tion only;  a  gas-producer  is  tightly  closed  during  the  time  it  is 
not  making  gas  and  the  entrance  of  air  is  thereby  prevented. 
This  feature  is  a  marked  advantage  over  a  steam  boiler  under 
similar  conditions. 

§  282.    Time  required  to  start  producers. 

Even  after  a  producer  has  been  idle  for  several  hours,  it  may 
be  started  and  can  be  working  at  its  full  capacity  within  fifteen 
minutes.  If  a  gas  holder  is  used  in  connection  with  the  producer, 
from  which  a  supply  of  gas  can  be  taken,  the  gas  engine  may 
be  started  instantly  and  kept  in  operation  until  the  gas-pro- 
ducers are  making  clean  gas. 

§  283.    Time  required  to  stop  producers. 

A  gas-producer  may  be  stopped  instantly  by  simply  shutting 
off  the  supply  of  air  and  steam. 


GAS-PRODUCER  POWER  PLANTS.  233 

§  284.    Composition  of  gas. 

The  gas  from  the  gas-producer  is  quite  uniform  in  composition, 
and  in  the  pressure  type,  where  it  usually  passes  first  to  a  holder 
before  reaching  the  gas  engine,  it  becomes  thoroughly  diffused, 
thus  insuring  a  still  greater  uniformity.  In  the  suction  gas- 
producer,  where  a  holder  is  not  used,  the  regulation  of  composi- 
tion must  be  secured  as  explained  in  §  208. 

§  285.    Thermal  efficiency  and  economy. 

The  thermal  efficiency  of  gas-producers  in  good  condition  is 
generally  about  80  per  cent,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  even  higher 
than  this.  Since  the  thermal  efficiency  of  the  gas  engine  is  very 
much  higher  than  the  steam  engine,  the  aggregate  efficiency  of 
the  gas-power  plant  will  be  very  much  larger  than  a  steam- 
power  plant.  This  is  shown  very  clearly  in  Fig.  107,  a  part  of 
which  is  made  from  data  collected  by  Eyermann  (B  323). 

A  represents  an  ordinary  steam  plant,  while  B  represents  a 
large  steam  plant  with  water-tube  boilers  and  triple-expansion 
engines.  C  represents  a  small  gas  plant  and  D  a  large  gas  plant. 
With  a  suction  type  of  producer,  the  boiler  loss  in  C  may  be  con- 
siderably decreased.  The  utilization  of  the  waste  heat  in  the 
gas-engine  exhaust  gases  for  pre-heating  the  air  and  super- 
heating the  steam  will  make  the  boiler  loss  nil,  and  may  place  the 
thermal  efficiency  of  the  producer  above  90  per  cent. 

Curve  No.  1  shows  the  relation  between  fuel  consumption  per 
b.h.p.  hour,  curve  No.  2  the  relation  between  energy  available 
in  b.h.p.,  and  curve  No.  3  the  relation  between  the  water  con- 
sumption per  b.h.p.  of  the  respective  classes  of  plants.  The 
decided  advantages  of  the  gas-power  plant  are  so  evident  as  not 
to  require  emphasis. 

§  286.    Automatic  feeding. 

It  is  much  easier  to  use  an  automatic  feeding  device  on  a  gas- 
producer  than  on  a  steam  boiler,  because  all  producers  are  placed 
vertically  and  the  fuel  can  be  dropped  into  position  by  gravity. 
The  use  of  an  automatic  feed  always  decreases  labor  and  insures 
more  uniformity  in  the  composition  of  the  gas  produced. 

§  287.    Rate  of  gasification. 

The  rate  of  gasification  in  a  gas-producer  is  relative  to  the 
character  of  the  coal  used.  The  best  rate  determined  by  ex- 
perience for  a  pressure-type  producer  is  12  Ib.  of  coal  per  square 


234      A   TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


16 


I- 


I 


FIG.  107.  —  RELATIVE  ECONOMIES  OF  STEAM  AND  GAS-POWER  PLANTS. 


GAS-PRODUCER  POWER  PLANTS.  235 

foot  of  grate  area  per  hour,  although  some  makers  have  advised 
as  high  as  20  Ib.  of  coal.  However,  the  exact  limit  of  coal  con- 
sumption is  not  known,  as  it  is  dependent  on  a  large  number  of 
empirical  factors.  Experience  has  also  demonstrated  that  too 
rapid  driving  opens  a  wide  door  for  the  admission  of  adverse 
gasifying  conditions. 

§  288.    Poking  the  gas-producer. 

The  amount  and  frequency  of  poking  a  gas-producer  will  de- 
pend on  the  nature  of  the  fuel  and  the  design  of  the  producer. 
The  mechanical  agitation  of  the  fuel-bed  eliminates  poking  en- 
tirely. In  using  bituminous  coals,  the  difficulties  of  clinker 
formations  are  augmented  by  the  production  of  coke.  The  judi- 
cious use  of  a  steam  blast,  automatic  feeding,  and  proper  grates 
will  generally  reduce  poking  to  a  minimum  and,  in  some  cases, 
will  eliminate  it  entirely.  Hand-poking  is  very  laborious  for  the 
attendant  and  usually  it  will  be  shirked  whenever  possible.  Gas 
will  usually  escape  around  the  poke  holes  while  the  producer  is 
being  poked,  which  will  vitiate  the  air  in  the  producer-room  and 
also  affects  the  regularity  of  the  composition  of  the  gas.  Suction 
producers  require  less  fuel  agitation  than  the  pressure  type. 

§  289.   Calorific  value  of  producer-gas. 

The  calorific  value  of  producer-gas  varies  from  125  to  150  B.  t.  u. 
per  cubic  foot. 

§  290.    Fuel  economy. 

The  generation  of  one  brake  horse-power  per  hour  with  from 
1  to  1.25  Ib.  of  coal  or  3  Ib.  of  wood  is  very  common  in  producer- 
gas  power-plant  practice  at  the  present  time,  and  the  gas  con- 
tains at  least  80  per  cent  of  the  heat  energy  resident  in  the  fuel, 
if  the  producer  is  in  normal  condition. 

§  291.    No  loss  from  condensation. 

A  very  important  advantage  of  the  producer-gas  installation 
is  that  the  gas  does  not  condense  or  lose  power  on  its  way  to 
the  gas  engine.  On  the  contrary,  the  cooler  the  gas  the  better 
it  is  for  the  engine.  With  steam,  the  condensation  loss  is  con- 
siderable. 

§  292.    Leakage  of  gas. 

It  is  easy  to  prevent  leakage  of  gas  from  the  piping,  owing  to 
the  low  pressure  of  the  gas  (about  2  in.  of  water) ;  whereas,  with 


236     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

steam,  there  is  often  much  loss  and  inconvenience  on  this  ac-. 
count. 

§  293.    Saving  in  shafting. 

By  using  isolated  engines,  a  large  saving  in  shafting  may  be 
made  in  many  cases.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  this  in  steam 
plants  and  still  maintain  a  good  economy. 

§  294.    Floor  space. 

The  floor  space  required  for  gas  holders,  gas-producers,  and 
auxiliary  apparatus  is  about  the  same  as  that  required  in  a  steam 
plant;  the  holder,  however,  need  not  be  placed  adjacent  to  the 
producers,  but  at  any  other  convenient  place. 

§  295.    Control  of  operation. 

A  gas-producer  plant  is  under  much  better  control  than  the 
average  steam  plant,  because  in  the  gas-producers  the  air-supply, 
rate  of  gasification,  and  fuel  supply  can  be  regulated  more 
easily. 

§  296.    Dual  use  of  gas. 

Another  important  advantage  of  the  gas-producer  power- 
plant  is  that,  in  many  cases,  the  gas  may  be  used  both  for  power 
and  for  metallurgical  purposes,  the  same  pipes  being  used  to 
supply  engines  and  furnaces.  The  plant  of  the  Winchester  Re- 
peating Arms  Co.,  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  illustrates  an  installa- 
tion of  this  character. 

§  297.   Storing  of  heat  energy. 

One  of  the  most  potent  advantages  of  the  gas-producer  plant 
compared  with  the  steam  plant  is  the  ability  of  the  former  to 
store  the  heat  energy  in  a  holder  where  it  may  be  drawn  upon 
for  immediate  use.  In  this  way  irregularities  and  fluctuations 
of  load  need  not  affect  the  regularity  of  the  action  of  the  gas- 
producer.  This  condition  means  an  economy  of  operation  and 
convenience  of  use  that  are  impossible  with  any  steam  plant,  and 
especially  in  handling  "  peak"  loads. 

§  298.    Economy  of  water. 

In  many  cases  it  is  a  serious  matter  to  secure  a  sufficient  supply 
of  water  for  a  steam  plant,  and  sometimes,  even  with  an  ade- 
quate supply,  the  quality  of  the  water  is  such  that  it  is  entirely 
unfit  for  use  in  a  steam  boiler.  One  of  the  most  annoying  diffi- 
culties of  many  steam  plants  is  the  trouble  caused  by  the  corro- 


GAS-PRODUCER  POWER  PLANTS.  237 

sion  and  subsequent  cleansing  of  the  boilers,  together  with  the 
maintenance  of  feed-water  purifiers. 

The  gas-producer  power  plant  forms  an  almost  ideal  solution 
for  the  problem  of  water  supply.  With  a  producer  in  normal 
condition,  the  consumption  of  water  will  not  exceed  2  Ib.  per 
brake  horse-power  hour.  The  water  used  in  cooling  the  gases 
in  the  scrubber  may  be  cooled  in  a  simple  tower  and  used  re- 
peatedly. 

§  299.    Driving  isolated  machines. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  piping  the  gas  for  several  thousand 
feet  in  order  to  reach  an  engine  that  drives  an  isolated  machine; 
this  often  makes  it  possible  to  dispense  with  abnormal  lengths 
of  line  shafting  and  the  consequent  friction  loss,  or  other  un- 
satisfactory methods  of  power  transmission.  This  condition  is 
especially  valuable  in  places  where  electrical  power  is  not  used. 

§  300.    Range  of  sizes. 

Standard  gas-producers  now  range  from  a  few  horse-power 
to  more  than  1000  h.p.  in  size. 

§  301.    Danger  of  explosion. 

There  is  much  less  danger  of  explosion  in  a  gas-producer  than 
there  is  in  connection  with  a  steam  plant;  moreover,  should  an 
explosion  occur,  it  would  be  much  less  violent  and  destructive 
than  that  of  a  steam  boiler. 

§  302.    Location  of  producer  plant. 

If  desired,  the  gas-producer  plant  may  be  placed  near  the  fuel 
supply,  which,  in  many  cases,  would  reduce  the  expense  of  trans- 
portation, the  gas  being  piped  to  the  gas  engines  or  furnaces 
where  it  is  to  be  used.  This  arrangement,  which  is  impossible 
with  a  steam  plant,  means  a  decided  saving  in  favor  of  the  gas- 
producer  installation. 

The  transmission  of  gas  from  a  large  central  gas-producer 
plant  to  gas  engines  several  miles  away  is  a  scheme  that  is  not 
only  practical  but  has  many  marked  advantages,  and  may  be- 
come a  formidable  rival  of  electricity  in  some  cases.  Large 
producer-gas  plants  could  be  operated  on  a  very  cheap  fuel  and, 
by  saving  the  by-products,  the  gas  could  be  delivered  and  sold 
with  profit  at  a  much  lower  price  than  the  power  from  steam 
plants  costs  in  many  cases. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

OPERATION    OF    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  303.    Erection. 

This  requires  care,  but  ordinarily  not  as  much  labor  as  a  steam 
plant.  In  the  smaller  sizes  of  power  producers,  the  firebrick 
lining  should  be  fitted  in  the  producer  at  the  shop  before  ship- 
ment; in  the  larger  sizes  this  is  not  usually  feasible  and  the  set- 
ting of  the  firebrick  lining  must  be  done  during  erection.  The 
firebrick  should  be  homogeneous  in  structure,  uniform  in  size, 
and  fit  very  closely  so  as  to  require  but  little  mortar.  The 
mortar  should  be  made  of  clear  water  and  pure  fire  clay  thoroughly 
mixed  into  a  thin  paste.  It  is  not  the  object  of  the  mortar  to 
bind  the  firebrick  together,  but  merely  to  make  the  joints  gas- 
tight. 

Heavy  foundations  are  never  required  and  many  of  the  suc- 
tion gas-producers  require  only  a  level  and  solid  floor.  All 
valves  should  be  placed  within  easy  reach  of  the  operator. 

All  joints  must  be  gas-tight  before  the  producer  is  put  into 
service.  The  easiest  way  to  determine  this  is  to  build  on  the 
grate  a  small  fire  of  some  black  smoke-producing  material  — 
such  as  pine  knots  —  and  force  the  smoke  through  the  apparatus 
by  means  of  the  hand  blower.;  if  any  of  the  joints  are  not  tight, 
the  black  smoke  will  come  out,  and  thus  show  the  location  of 
the  leak. 

§  304.   Starting  producer. 

Before  starting  the  first  fire  in  a  new  producer  or  in  one  that 
has  been  re-lined,  be  sure  that  the  fire-clay  mortar  is  thoroughly 
dry.  The  exact  method  of  procedure  will  vary  with  the  different 
types  of  producers.  However,  the  following  general  rules,  with 
special  reference  to  suction  plants,  will  suffice.  Open  the  vent 
pipe  to  atmosphere  and  close  the  inlet  to  scrubber,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  gases  entering  the  latter.  Some  producers  have  an 
automatic  arrangement,  so  that  if  the' vent  pipe  is  open  the  scrub- 

238 


OPERATION  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  239 

ber  inlet  is  closed,  and  vice  versa.  In  such  cases  it  is  necessary 
to  handle  one  valve  only.  Also  see  that  the  vaporizer  has  the 
proper  amount  of  water. 

To  start  the  fire,  place  some  kindling,  oily  waste  or  other 
inflammable  material  on  the  grate,  then  add  wood  and  a  little 
coal,  and  leave  the  ash-pit  door  open.  After  the  fire  has  started 
nicely  close  all  doors  and  begin  forcing  it  with  the  blower,  taking 
care  to  do  this  very  slowly  at  first  or  else  the  excessive  blast 
will  kill  the  fire.  After  several  minutes,  add  more  wood  and 
coal,  filling  the  producer  about  two-thirds  full,  and  continue  the 
blast  until  it  is  ready  for  use  in  the  engine.  The  blowing  usually 
consumes  about  twenty  minutes.  The  quality  of  the  gas  is 
judged  by  the  color  of  the  flame  from  the  test  cock.  This  should 
be  opened  and  the  issuing  gas  lighted  after  the  producer  has 
been  blown  for  about  ten  minutes.  At  first  the  gas  will  burn 
with  a  blue  flame,  this  color  indicating  the  presence  of  air.  The 
blowing  must  be  continued  until  the  gas  burns  evenly  with  an 
orange-colored  flame,  this  color  indicating  the  fitness  of  the  gas 
for  use  in  the  engine.  Then  open  the  scrubber  inlet,  close  the 
vent  pipe,  adjust  the  water  spray  in  the  scrubber  and  purge  the 
latter  by  forcing  the  gas  through  it.  A  by-pass  near  the  engine 
from  the  gas  pipe  to  the  exhaust  pipe  is  very  desirable,  as  then 
the  air  and  gas  which  are  being  purged  out  of  the  piping  between 
the  producer  and  the  engine  may  be  led  outdoors  by  means  of 
the  exhaust  pipe,  thus  permitting  the  thorough  purging  of  the 
piping  without  vitiating  the  atmosphere  in  the  room. 

§  305.   Starting  engine. 

The  exact  method  of  procedure  will  vary  with  the  type  of 
producer,  type  and  size  of  engine,  and  the  starting  mechanism 
available.  With  regard  to  the  latter,  a  supply  of  compressed 
air  is  the  most  desirable. 

In  order  to  secure  a  good  explosive  mixture,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  adjust  the  quantity  of  air  admitted,  to  the  quality  of  the 
gas  that  is  being  used  in  starting.  With  a  suction  producer, 
the  gas  will  usually  be  below  the  average  for  several  minutes,  or 
until  the  engine  and  producer  have  been  working  together  long 
enough  to  induce  the  proper  gasifying  conditions  in  the  pro- 
ducer. Electric  ignition  should  be  used  on  all  producer-gas 
engines  and,  in  starting,  it  will  usually  be  desirable  to  have  the 


240    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

time  of  firing  much  later  than  is  required  when  the  engine  is 
running  at  full  speed. 

If  the  engine  is  required  to  work  at  full  load  as  soon  as  started, 
it  will  be  better  to  have  the  producer  filled  with  fuel  before  the 
engine  is  started,  and  also  use  the  hand  blower  for  several  minutes 
after  the  engine  is  in  operation. 

§  306.    Stopping  producer. 

With  the  pressure  type  the  shutting  off  of  the  steam  blower, 
and  with  the  suction  type  the  stopping  of  the  engine,  is  all  that 
is  necessary.  If  the  fire  is  to  be  held  in  the  producer,  it  must 
be  kept  air-tight  during  the  hours  of  idleness. 

§  307.    Running  producer. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  charging  the  producer  with  fuel. 
If  coal  is  used,  all  the  large  lumps  should  be  broken,  and  the 
slate  and  fine  dust  removed  before  the  fuel  is  placed  in  the  pro- 
ducer. The  fuel  bed  should  be  kept  up  to  its  normal  height  at 
all  times,  and  all  clinkers  and  channels  should  be  kept  broken 
up.  The  ashes  must  be  removed  regularly  so  as  not  to  keep 
the  ash  bed  excessively  thick.  It  is  imperative  that  the  charg- 
ing box  should  be  kept  closed  when  the  valve,  bell,  or  damper 
connecting  the  box  with  the  producer  is  open.  If  this  caution 
is  not  observed,  air  may  rush  into  the  producer,  mingle  with  the 
gas,  and  cause  a  small  explosion. 

The  quantity  of  steam  should  be  so  regulated  that  the  fire 
will  be  maintained  at  the  proper  working  temperature.  All 
valves  must  be  kept  in  their  proper  position;  if  water-seals  are 
used,  they  must  always  be  supplied  with  water.  The  producer 
room  should  be  amply  ventilated.  All  joints  should  be  tested 
at  intervals  to  determine  their  tightness;  this  may  be  done  by 
passing  a  lighted  candle  along  the  joint  and  watching  the  flame, 
a  leakage  causing  a  deflection  of  the  flame. 

The  air  furnished  the  producer  should  be  clean  and  reasonably 
dry.  The  use  of  air  laden  with  dust  will  increase  the  work  of 
the  gas  scrubbers. 

§  308.    Cleaning  of  plant. 

To  secure  good  results,  it  is  imperative  to  keep  the  plant  clean. 
The  doors  to  the  scrubbers  should  be  opened  at  intervals  so  that 
the  interior  of  the  scrubber  may  be  inspected.  Whatever  ma- 
terial is  used  in  the  scrubber  for  catching  the  dirt  should  be  kept 


OPERATION  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  241 

clean  enough  to  insure  its  efficient  working.  New  coke  should 
always  be  washed  before  being  placed  in  the  scrubber.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  coke  from  the  scrubber  the  following 
precautions  are  important: 

The  cleaning  should  be  done  by  two  men  as  a  safeguard  against 
asphyxiation  of  either  one,  in  case  of  carelessness.  The  room 
should  be  well  ventilated  and  all  openings  to  the  scrubber  and 
producer  kept  open  for  some  time  before  cleaning  is  begun.  In 
no  case  should  lamps  with  exposed  flames  be  used,  on  account  of 
the  danger  of  explosion  of  the  mixture  of  air  and  gas.  For  this 
reason  it  will  be  preferable  to  do  the  cleaning  by  daylight.  If 
the  above  precautions  are  observed  there  is  absolutely  no  danger 
from  gas-poisoning.  (See  Chapter  28.) 

All  pipes  and  connections  should  be  examined  at  intervals 
to  see  that  they  are  free  from  dust  or  tar.  The  producer  must 
be  kept  free  from  clinkers.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  draw  the 
fire,  the  firebrick  lining  must  be  allowed  to  cool  slowly  to  avoid 
danger  of  fracture ;  and  the  top  of  the  producer  must  be  kept  air- 
tight until  all  the  incandescent  fuel  has  been  removed,  to  avoid 
the  danger  of  explosion. 

§  309.    Producer  troubles. 

Excessive  steam  will  increase  CO2,  H  and  water  vapor  in  gas 
and  decrease  CO. 

Holes  in  the  fire  are  caused  by  excessive  air  blast,  want  of 
poking,  or  too  thin  a  fire  bed. 

Oxygen  in  the  gas  is  caused  by  air  leaking  in  through  the  walls 
of  producer. 

Rapid  driving  and  excessive  blast  with  thin  ash  bed  will  allow 
air  to  pass  up  and  through  the  fire. 

High  temperature  of  exit  gases  is  due  to  insufficient  supply 
of  steam  or  fuel  and  to  the  ash  bed  being  too  thin. 

Coal  or  unburned  carbon  in  the  ashes  is  due  to  an  inefficient  grate. 

Burning  of  the  gas  is  caused  by  channels  in  the  fire  or  along  the 
wall,  which  permit  the  air  to  come  up  through  the  fuel  without 
giving  up  its  oxygen. 

Excessive  CO2  in  the  gas  is  sometimes  caused  by  the  burning 
of  the  gas. 

Hanging  of  the  fire  is  caused  either  by  fusing  of  the  clinkers 
to  the  brickwork  or  the  non-agitation  of  the  fuel  bed. 


242    A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Clinkers  are  usually  caused  by  an  insufficient  steam  supply. 

The  cooling  of  the  fire  may  be  caused  by  excessive  steam, 
undue  radiation,  or  insufficient  air  supply. 

Producer-gas  made  when  steam  is  blown  in  will  always  con- 
tain more  CO2  than  does  that  made  under  similar  circumstances 
when  only  air  is  blown  in. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

TESTING    GAS-PRODUCERS. 

§  310.    Object  of  code. 

The  following  description  of  methods  for  conducting  gas- 
producer  tests  is  probably  the  first  attempt  to  give  the  subject 
an  analytical,  thorough,  and  comprehensive  treatment. 

In  some  cases  where  tests  have  been  made,  the  methods  have 
been  so  unsystematic  and  ambiguous  that  it  has  been  impossible 
to  secure  comparable  results.  To  eliminate  this  difficulty,  the 
following  provisional  code  of  gas-producer  tests  —  which  has  some 
resemblance  to  the  code  of  boiler-trials  of  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers  —  has  been  developed. 

§311.    Object  of  test. 

The  primary  object  in  testing  a  gas-producer  is  to  determine 
whether  the  producer  is  working  satisfactorily,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  see  if  the  efficiency  is  as  high  as  it  should  be  with  the  type  of 
producer  in  question,  and  alsov  to  find  out  if  the  composition  of 
the  resulting  gas  is  adapted  to  the  work  it  has  to  do. 

§  312.    Value  of  test. 

In  order  that  the  test  shall  be  of  any  value,  it  must  be  thorough 
and  comprehensive,  and  must  be  conducted  with  skill  and  care. 
When  so  conducted,  the  test  will  reveal  the  economy  of  the 
producer,  and,  by  making  suitable  changes,  the  efficiency  will 
often  be  greatly  increased.  As  a  result  of  the  tests  made  by 
Jenkins  (B  99),  the  efficiency  was  raised  from  56.2  to  71.2  per 
cent.  This  shows  the  large  saving  that  may  frequently  be  made 
in  the  fuel  consumption  by  studying  the  results  of  a  careful 
test.  The  log  of  the  test,  given  in  Fig.  108,  shows  that  just  as 
soon  as  the  temperature  became  regular  the  percentage  of  CO2 
decreased  and  that  of  CO  increased. 

§  313.    Determination  of  object. 

Determine  at  the  outset  the  specific  object  of  making  the 
test  —  whether  it  is  to  ascertain  the  capacity  of  the  producer, 

243 


244     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


TESTING  GAS-PRODUCERS.  245 

its  efficiency  and  defects,  or  the  effect  of  certain  changes  of  de- 
sign, proportion,  or  operation,  and  prepare  for  the  trial  accord- 
ingly. 

§  314.    Examination  of  producer. 

Examine  the  producer  in  detail,  ascertain  the  dimensions  of 
grates  and  contour  of  inner  walls,  determine  the  angle  of  the 
bosh  wall  with  the  vertical,  make  a  full  record  describing  the 
same,  and  illustrate  special  features  by  sketches.  If  possible, 
secure  a  drawing  or  make  one  giving  the  general  dimensions  of 
the  producer. 

§  315.    General  condition  of  producer. 

Notice  the  general  condition  of  the  producer  and  its  equip- 
ment, and  record  such  facts  in  relation  thereto  as  bear  upon  the 
objects  in  view.  If  the  object  of  the  trial  is  to  ascertain  the 
maximum  economy  of  the  gas-producer,  the  producer  and  all 
its  appurtenances  should  be  put  in  first-class  condition.  Remove 
clinkers  from  grates  and  from  sides  of  the  walls.  Remove  all 
dust,  soot,  and  ashes  from  the  chambers,  gas  connections,  and 
flues.  Close  air  leaks  in  the  masonry  and  poorly  fitting  clean- 
ing doors.  See  that  all  dampers  will  open  wide  and  also  close 
tight.  Test  for  air  leaks  by  passing  the  flame  of  a  candle  over 
cracks  in  the  brickwork. 

§  316.    Character  of  fuel. 

Determine  the  character  of  the  fuel  to  be  used.  For  test  of 
the  efficiency  or  capacity  of  the  producer  in  comparison  with 
other  producers,  the  fuel  should,  if  possible,  be  of  some  kind 
which  is  commercially  regarded  as  a  standard. 

§  317.   Calibration  of  apparatus. 

Establish  the  correctness  of  all  apparatus  used  in  the  test  for 
weighing  and  measuring.  These  are: 

a.  Scales  for  weighing  coal  and  ashes,  and  water  if  an  aux- 
iliary boiler  is  used. 

b.  Thermometers  and  pyrometers  for  taking  temperatures;  if  a 
thermo-electric  pyrometer  is  used,  it  must  be  calibrated  with  the 
same  lengths  of  wire  and  same  resistance  used  in  taking  the  readings. 

c.  Pressure  gauges,  draft  gauges,  etc. 

d.  Apparatus  used  in  making  gas-analysis. 

e.  Anemometers  used  in  measuring  air. 


246     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

The  kind  and  location  of  the  various  pieces  of  testing  appa- 
ratus must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  person  conducting  the 
test;  always  keep  in  mind  the  main  object,  i.e.,  to  obtain  authentic 
data. 

§  318.    Auxiliary  boiler. 

When  an  auxiliary  boiler  or  vaporizer  is  used  to  furnish  the 
steam  for  the  producer,  the  amount  of  fuel  it  consumes  must  be 
charged  against  the  producer.  The  amount  of  water  that  the 
boiler  evaporates  must  also  be  measured. 

§  319.    Heating  of  producer. 

See  that  the  producer  is  thoroughly  heated  to  its  usual  work- 
ing temperature  before  the  trial. 

§  320.    Duration  of  test. 

For  tests  made  to  ascertain  either  the  maximum  economy  or 
the  minimum  capacity  of  the  producer,  the  duration  should  be 
at  least  12  hours  of  continuous  running,  after  the  producer  has 
been  brought  up  to  its  normal  working  condition. 

§  321.    Starting  and  stopping  a  test. 

The  conditions  of  the  producer  in  all  respects  should  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  at  the  end  of  the  test  as  at  the  be- 
ginning. The  fire  should  be  the  same  in  quantity  and  condition, 
and  the  walls,  flues,  etc.,  should  be  of  the  same  temperature. 
In  no  case  should  the  fires  be  drawn  out,  as  is  often  done  in  boiler- 
tests.  In  producers  that  must  be  shut  down  for  cleaning,  it  is 
advisable  that  the  test  should  cover  one  continuous  phase  only. 

§  322.    Uniformity  of  conditions. 

Arrangements  should  be  made  to  utilize  the  gas  so  that  the 
rate  of  gasification  may  be  constant  during  the  test.  Uniformity 
of  conditions  should  prevail  as  to  the  pressure  of  steam  and  air 
blast,  the  thickness  of  fire  and  bed  of  ashes,  the  times  of  firing 
and  quantity  of  coal  fired  at  one  time,  frequency  of  poking, 
and  the  intervals  between  the  times  of  cleaning  the  fires. 

§  323.    Keeping  the  records. 

Take  note  of  every  event  connected  with  the  progress  of  the 
trial,  however  unimportant  it  may  appear.  Record  the  time  of 
every  occurrence  and  the  time  of  taking  every  weight  and  every 
observation. 


TESTING  GAS-PRODUCERS.  247 

§  324.    Quantity  of  steam. 

When  an  auxiliary  boiler  or  vaporizer  is  used  for  each  pro- 
ducer, the  amount  of  steam  used  can  easily  be  determined  from 
the  amount  of  water  evaporated  in  the  boiler. 

In  the  absence  of  an  auxiliary  boiler,  proceed  as  follows: 
After  the  test  has  been  made,  remove  the  steam  nozzle  and  cali- 
brate it  by  determining  the  amount  of  steam  that  will  pass 
through  in  a  unit  of  time  with  the  same  pressure  and  percentage 
of  moisture  used  during  the  test.  Then  examine  the  boiler  that 
is  furnishing  the  supply  of  steam,  and  determine  as  accurately 
as  possible  the  quantity  of  coal  used  per  hour  in  making  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  steam  used  per  hour,  and  charge  this 
amount  of  coal  to  the  producer. 

The  amount  of.  steam  may  also  be  determined  as  follows: 
The  hydrogen  in  the  gas  and  water  vapor  must  come  from  three 
sources  —  namely,  coal,  moisture  in  coal,  and  steam.  As  all 
these  quantities  are  known  except  the  last,  it  can  easily  be  deter- 
mined. 

§  325.    Quality  of  steam. 

The  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  steam  should  be  determined 
near  the  nozzle  where  the  steam  enters  the  producer,  by  means 
of  a  throttling  or  separating  calorimeter.  The  sampling  nozzle 
should  be  placed  in  a  vertical  steam  pipe. 

§  326.    Measurement  of  ashes  and  refuse. 

The  ashes  and  refuse  will  generally  be  wet  before  they  are 
drawn  from  the  producer,  especially  if  a  producer  of  the  water- 
seal  type  is  used.  After  the  test,  rake  out  all  the  ashes  and  weigh 
them  immediately;  in  the  meantime  set  aside  a  sufficient  sample 
for  chemical  analysis  and  weigh  it;  then  let  this  large  sample 
dry  in  the  air  until  it  reaches  a  constant  weight,  after  which 
reduce  to  a  laboratory  sample  and  determine  the  residual  mois- 
ture. The  amount  of  incombustible  material  should  be  accurately 
determined,  and,  in  this  way,  find  the  grate  efficiency  of  the 
producer. 

§  327.   Sampling  the  fuel  and  determining  its  moisture. 

This  is  of  great  importance,  since  the  fuel  analysis  is  worthless 
unless  it  is  made  from  a  representative  sample  of  the  fuel.  The 
method  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  which  is  given  here- 
with in  substance,  is  to  be  used. 


248     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

In  any  method  of  sampling,  two  conditions  must  be  insisted 
on;  the  original  sample  should  be  of  considerable  size  and  thor- 
oughly representative,  and  the  quartering,  down  to  an  amount 
which  can  be  put  in  a  sealed  jar,  should  be  carried  out  as  quickly 
as  possible  after  the  sample  is  taken.  Unless  the  coal  contains 
less  than  two  per  cent  of  moisture,  the  shipment  of  large  samples 
in  wooden  boxes  should  be  avoided. 

In  sampling  from  a  pile,  take  every  sixth  shovelful  and 
place  the  coal  taken  on  a  close,  tight  floor.  Break  all  lumps 
larger  than  an  orange.  Mix  by  shoveling  it  over  on  itself,  back 
and  forth.  Quarter,  and  reject  opposite  quarters.  Break  finer 
if  necessary,  and  continue  to  quarter  down  till  a  sample  is  ob- 
tained small  enough  to  go  into  a  quart  fruit  jar,  having  no  pieces 
larger  than  will  pass  a  0.5  inch  mesh.  Then  air  dry  for  24  hours 
or  more  —  long  enough  to  insure  that  the  quantity  of  moisture 
remaining  will  vary  less  than  1  per  cent. 

The  sample  may,  with  advantage,  be  run  rapidly  through  a 
mill  which  will  break  it  into  the  size  mentioned.  Transfer  to 
the  jar  and  make  sure  the  latter  is  sealed  air-tight  before  it  is 
set  aside.  All  of  these  operations  should  be  conducted  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  to  guard  against  any  change  in  the  moisture  content 
of  the  coal. 

In  gas-producer  tests,  shovelfuls  of  coal  should  be  taken  at 
regular  intervals  and  put  in  a  tight,  covered  barrel,  or  some 
air-tight  covered  receptacle,  and  the  latter  should  be  placed 
where  it  is  protected  from  the  heat  of  the  producer. 

§  328.    Calorific  tests  and  fuel  analysis. 

The  method  adopted  by  the  American  Chemical  Society  is 
to  be  used  (B  351).  Since  this  is  purely  a  standard  laboratory 
work,  the  details  need  not  be  discussed  here. 

§  329.    Gas  analysis. 

The  gas  is  to  be  analyzed  according  to  standard  chemical 
methods. 

§  330.    Calorific  value  of  gas. 

The  calorific  value  per  cubic  foot  should  be  calculated  from 
its  chemical  composition  (§53),  and  also  determined  directly 
by  the  Junker  calorimeter.  The  two  values  should  correspond 
closely. 


TESTING  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


249 


§  331.    Determination  of  water  vapor,  tar,  and  soot  in  gas. 

The  use  of  the  following  apparatus,  designed  by  Prof.  N.  W. 
Lord  and  shown  in  Fig.  109,  is  advised. 

B  is  the  sampling  tube  made  of  0.5  in.  pipe  which  is  placed  in 
the  gas  flue;  A  is  an  annular  jacket  surrounding  it,  and  has  pipe 
connections  at  D  and  C. 

Live  steam  is  blown  in  at  D,  and  out  at  C,  the  object  of  this 
being  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  iron  pipe  B  below  the  point 
at  which  the  iron  would  act  on  the  CO2.  This  will  secure  a  suf- 


FIG.  109.  —  APPARATUS  FOR  SAMPLING  GAS,  DESIGNED  BY  PROF.  N.  W. 

LORD. 

ficient  cooling  and  yet  will  leave  the  temperature  high  enough 
to  prevent  the  condensation  of  moisture. 

E  is  an  ordinary  condenser  through  which  cold  water  is  cir- 
culated. 

F  is  a  small  flask  filled  with  ignited  asbestos  fiber  and  con- 
taining a  thermometer  G. 

J  and  L  are  tanks  filled  with  water  and  connected  at  K.  I  is 
a  valve.  H  is  a  rubber  tube  connecting  J  and  F.  Q  is  a  ther- 
mometer placed  in  a  stopper  in  a  pipe  with  valve  R,  the  object 


250     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

of  this  valve  being  to  make  it  possible  to  remove  the  thermometer 
when  gas  is  in  the  tank  J.  AT  is  a  float  to  which  is  fastened 
the  curved  tube  N,  which  acts  as  a  siphon  and  which  has  a 
small  nozzle  0,  with  a  pinch-cock  P,  on  the  rubber  connection. 
The  object  of  the  float  and  tube  is  to  keep  a  constant  head 
above  the  nozzle,  and  thus  insure  a  uniform  flow  through  it. 
The  operation  of  the  tank  is  as  follows:  Disconnect  the  rubber 
tube  H  and  fill  the  tanks  J  and  L  with  water  until  they  overflow 
at  the  valve  /;  fill  the  siphon  N  with  water  and  close  the  stop- 
cock P,  attach  the  rubber  tube  H  to  stop-cock  7,  and  circulate 
water  through  the  condenser  E,  and  steam  through  the  water 
jacket  A.  Then  open  valve  P;  the  water  will  be  drawn  out  of 
tanks  L  and  J,  and  the  gas  will  be  drawn  through  condenser  E, 
flask  F,  and  tube  H,  into  the  top  of  the  tank  /.  The  water  in 
excess  of  the  saturation  of  the  gas  at  the  temperature  of  the 
small  flask  is  condensed  and  any  tar  and  soot  in  the  gas  retained 
in  the  ignited  asbestos  in  the  flask.  After  the  test,  the  flask 
and  its  contents  are  weighed,  and  the  increase  over  the  weight 
taken  before  the  test  gives  the  quantity  of  the  tar  and  water 
condensed  from  the  volume  of  the  gas  which  has  passed  through 
the  flask.  This  volume  is  determined  by  measuring  the  quantity 
of  water  which  had  run  out  of  the  aspirating  tank  J,  which  had 
been  used  in  drawing  the  sample. 

The  quantity  of  water  remaining  in  the  gas,  after  passing  out 
of  the  little  flask  used  as  a  receiver,  is  then  calculated  from  the 
temperature  of  the  issuing  gas,  which  was  saturated  with  water 
vapor,  by  means  of  saturation  table  11,  p.  267.  The  water  in  the 
gas  is  then  the  sum  of  the  permanent  vapor  and  that  condensed. 
The  water  in  the  flask  is  determined  by  drying  the  contents 
over  sulphuric  acid  to  constant  weight  and  determining  the 
loss.  The  dry  contents  are  then  ignited  and  the  further  loss  of 
weight  estimated  as  soot  and  tar. 

B    =  barometric  pressure. 

Tt  =  temperature  of  gas  in  tank. 

Tb  =  temperature  of  gas  flask. 

Vt  =  volume  of  wet  gas  in  tank  at  temperature  Tt. 

Vs  =  Vt  reduced  to  0  degrees  C.  and  760  mm. 

Vd  =  volume  of  dry  gas  at  0  degrees  C.  and  760  mm. 

Bt  =  aqueous  tension  of  water  vapor  corresponding  to  Tt. 


TESTING  GAS-PRODUCERS.  251 

Bb  =  aqueous  tension  of  water  vapor  corresponding  to  Tb. 

W  =  weight  of  1  cubic  unit  of  water  vapor  corresponding  to  Tb. 

Wb  =  weight  of  water  vapor  condensed  in  flask. 

Wt  =  weight  of  permanent  water  vapor  in  volume  Vs. 

TT-J  /D J)f\ 

VS  =760  (1+0.00366  Tt)      (SeG  §  13"} 

—  =  percentage  by  volume  of  water  vapor  in  flask. 
B 

fit 

~  =  percentage  by  volume  of  water  vapor  in  Vs. 
B 

Rf 
Vd  =  Vs  (1-|V 

Vs — -  =  total  volume  of  permanent  water  vapor  in  Vs. 
B 

Vs— W  =Wt. 
B 

Wt  +  Wb  =  total  weight  of  water  carried  in  volume,  Vd,  of  gas. 

From  this,  the  amount  of  H2O  and  tar  and  soot  per  pound  of 
coal  can  be  calculated  directly. 

§  332.    Report  of  test. 

The  data  and  results  should  be  reported  in  the  manner  given 
in  table  10.  It  is  also  recommended  that  the  full  log  of  the  test 
be  shown  graphically  by  means  of  a  chart,  represented  by  Fig.  108. 


TABLE  10. 

DATA   AND    RESULTS   OF   GAS-PRODUCER   TEST. 

General  Data. 


1.  Test  made  by 

2.  Test  made  to  determine .. 


3.  Chemical  analysis  made  by. 

4.  Type  of  producer 

5.  Producer  built  by 

6.  Date  of  installation 

7.  Kind  of  fuel 

8.  Form  of  grate 

9.  Form  of  ash  pit 

10.  Form  of  blower 

11.  State  of  weather 

12.  Barometer  in  producer  room 

13.  Date  of  test 

14.  Duration  of  test 


252      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Dimensions  of  Producer. 

A  complete  description  and  drawings  of  producer  should  be  given  on  an 
annexed  sheet. 

15.  Grate  surface Width Length 

Diameter Area 

16.  Height  of  bed  of  ashes 

17.  Height  of  top  of  fire  above  grate 

18.  Thickness  of  ash  zone 

19.  Position  of  air  pipes   

20.  Position  of  steam  inlets 

21.  Diameter  of  producer 

22.  Inclination  of  bosh  wall 

Average  Pressures. 


23.  Steam  pressure  near  nozzle  (Ib.  per  sq.  in.) 

24.  Force  of  draft  in  ash  pit  (in.  of  water) 

25.  Force  of  draft  in  gas  flue  (in.  of  water) 

26.  Steam  pressure  in  auxiliary  boiler  (Ib.  per  sq.  in.) . 

Average  Temperatures. 

27.  Of  external  air 

28.  Of  producer  room 

29.  Of  steam  near  nozzle 

30.  Of  air  entering  pre-heater 

31.  Of  air  entering  producer 

32.  Number  of  degrees  of  pre-heating 

33.  Of  escaping  gases  from  producer 

34.  Of  escaping  gases  from  economizer 

35.  Of  ash  pit 

36.  Of  ash  zone 

37.  Of  combustion  zone 

38.  Of  decomposition  zone 

39.  Of  distillation  zone 

40.  Of  feed-water  entering  auxiliary  boiler 

41.  Of  water  entering  jacket 

42.  Of  water  leaving  jacket 

43.  Of  water  entering  spray 

44.  Of  water  leaving  spray 


Fuel. 
45.   Size  and  condition 


46.  Total  weight  of  fuel  fired 

47.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  fuel 

48.  Total  weight  of  dry  fuel  consumed 

49.  Total  weight  of  ashes  as  drawn  out 

50.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  ashes 

51.  Total  weight  of  dry  ashes 

52.  Percentage  of  carbon  in  dry  ashes 

53.  Total  combustible  consumed 

54.  Percentage  of  incombustible  in  dry  fuel 

55.  Total  combustible  consumed  in  auxiliary  boiler 

56.  Total  combustible  required  to  generate  the  steam  used  in 

producer  when  the  producer  was  used  without  its  own 
auxiliary   boiler 

57.  Total  amount  of  combustible  used  in  the  production  of 

the  gas 


TESTING  GAS-PRODUCERS.  253 

Proximate  Analysis  of  FueL 

Of  Fuel  Of  Combustible. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

58.  Fixed   carbon 

59.  Volatile    matter 

60.  Moisture 

61.  Ash.. 


100  per  cent.  100  per  cent. 

62.  Sulphur,  separately  determined 

Ultimate  Analysis  of  Fuel. 

Of  Fuel.  Of  Combustible. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

63.  Carbon   (C) 

64.  Hydrogen    (H) 

65.  Oxygen   (O) 

66.  Nitrogen    (N) 

67.  Sulphur    (S) 

68.  Ash  . 


100  per  cent.                         100  per  cent. 
Moisture  in  sample  of  fuel  as  received 

Analysis  of  Ash  and  Refuse. 

69.  Carbon 

70.  Earthy  matter 


Consumption  of  FueL 

71.  Total  fuel  consumed  per  hour  in  running  producer 

72.  Total   combustible   consumed    per  hour  in  running  pro- 

ducer     

73.  Dry  fuel  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  surface  per  hour  consumed  in 

producer  itself     

Calorific  Value  of  FueL 

74.  Calorific  value  by  oxygen  calorimeter  per  pound  of  dry 

fuel B.  t.  u. 

75.  Calorific  value  by  oxygen  calorimeter  per  pound  of  com- 

bustible   B.  t.  u. 

76.  Calorific  value  by  analysis  per  pound  of  dry  fuel .  .  .  B.  t.  u. 

77.  Calorific  value  by  analysis  per  pound  of  combustible 

B.  t.  u. 

Quality  of  Steam. 

78.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  steam 

79.  Number  of  degrees  of  super-heating 


Quantity  of  Steam. 

80.  Apparent  weight  of  steam  per  hour. 

81.  Actual  weight  of  steam  per  hour.  . . 

82.  Ratio  of  steam  to  air  supply 


Quantity  of  Air. 

83.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  air. . . 

84.  Apparent  weight  of  air  per  hour. 

85.  Actual  weight  of  air  per  hour 


254:      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Water. 


86.  Total  weight  of  water  used  in  jacket 

87.  Number  of  heat  units  carried  out  per  pound  of  fuel , 

Efficiency. 

88.  Grate  efficiency  of  producer 

89.  Apparent  hot-gas  efficiency 

90.  Actual  hot-gas  efficiency 

91.  Apparent  cold-gas  efficiency 

92.  Actual  cold-gas  efficiency 


Cost  of  Gasification. 

93.  Cost  of  fuel  per  ton  delivered  in  producer  room 

94.  Cost  per  British  thermal  unit  in  gas 


Poking. 

95.  Method  of  poking 

96.  Frequency  of  poking 


Firing. 

97.  Method  of  firing 

98.  Average  intervals  between  firing 

99.  Average  amount  of  fuel  charged  each  time 

Per  cent. 

Gas  Analysis. 


100.  Carbon  dioxide  (CO2) 

101.  Carbon  monoxide  (CO) 

102.  Oxygen  (O)   (as  admixed  air) 

103.  Hydrogen  (H) 

104.  Marsh  gas  (CH4) 

105.  Olefiant  gas  (C2H4) 

106.  Sulphur  dioxide  (SO2) 

107.  Nitrogen  (N)  by  difference.  .  . 


100  per  cent. 

108.  Pounds  moisture  in  gas  per  pound  of  fuel 

109.  Pounds  soot  and  tar  in  gas  per  pound  of  fuel 

110.  Calorific  value  of  gas  from  analysis 

111.  Calorific  value  of  gas  determined  with  calorimeter     .... 

112.  Specific  heat  of  gas 

113.  Figure  of  merit  of  gas 

Q 

114.  Carbon  ratio  75- 

rl 

115. .  Volume  of  gas  per  pound  of  fuel 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

FUTURE    OF   THE   GAS-PRODUCER. 

§  333.    Outlook. 

In  Chapters  5  and  24  we  have  shown  the  many  advantages  of 
the  gas-producer  as  a  power  generator;  the  large  number  now  in 
successful  operation  shows  that  the  experimental  stage  has  been 
passed  and  that  they  have  become  a  formidable  competitor  of 
the  steam  boiler.  Gasoline-engine-driven  cars  are  now  in  success- 
ful operation  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad.  Gasoline  traction 
and  portable  engines  and  gasoline  marine  engines  in  small 
powers  have  become  standard  articles  of  commerce  and  are  giv- 
ing unusual  satisfaction.  The  high  thermal  efficiency  of  the 
gas  engine  makes  it  a  great  desideratum  as  a  prime  mover,  if  a 
suitable  fuel  is  available.  As  the  storage  and  handling  of  gaso- 
line is  dangerous,  and  the  commercial  price  so  high  as  to  limit 
its  use  in  small  sized  engines  and  entirely  prohibit  its  use  in  large 
sizes,  a  cheaper  fuel  is  required.  This  demand  is  met  in  the 
gas-producer,  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  producer-gas 
locomotives,  producer-gas  portable  engines,  and  producer-gas 
marine  plants  will  be  in  ordinary  use. 

§  334.    Producer-gas  locomotives. 

Since  producer-gas  locomotives  are  — 
Smokeless. 

(a)  The  trains  and  stations  may  be  kept  cleaner  than  at  pres- 
ent and  that  with  less  labor. 

(b)  Tunnels  may  be  passed  through  with  greater  safety  and 
less  trouble. 

(c)  The   comfort   of   passengers  would   be   greatly  increased, 
the  most  disagreeable  feature  of  nearly  all  trains  being  the  almost 
omnipresent  smoke.     This  will  be  a  valuable  inducement  to  in- 
crease the  passenger  traffic,  and  will  also  cause  a  very  marked 
increase  in  the  earning  powers  of  the  roads  equipped  with  smoke- 
less locomotives. 

255 


256     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Cinder  less. 

(a)  The  fuel  economy  will  be  increased,  as  the  loss  due  to 
unburned  coal  passing  out  through  the  stack  is  always  very  high. 
In  the  trials  conducted  by  Professor  Hitchcock  on  freight  loco- 
motives, this  loss  amounted  to  14  per  cent  of  the  coal  fired  (B  352), 
and  on  passenger  locomotives  the  loss  was  10  per  cent  of  the  coal 
fired  (B  353). 

(b)  The  comfort  of  passengers  will  be  greatly  increased  and 
the  cost  of  cleaning  trains  and  stations  will  be  decreased. 

(c)  The  large  fire  losses  due  to  sparks  on  property  adjacent 
to  railroads  would  be  entirely  eliminated.     "  Locomotives  fired 
eighty-five  buildings  in  Ohio  last  year  (1904),  a  majority  being 
in  cities  where  there  is  great  danger  of  conflagrations  "  (B  354). 
The  annual  loss  from  this  source  to  farmers  having  crops  in  close 
proximity  to  railroads  is  enormous,  and  is  not  included  in  the 
previous  quotation. 

(d)  The   insurance   rates   on   property   adjacent   to   railroads 
would  be  lower. 

More  economical. 

(a)  In  fuel  and  water.     In  the  trials  conducted  by  Hitchcock 
(B  353),  the  fuel  consumption  was  about  4J  Ib.  of  coal  per  i.h.p. 
hour,  and   the  water  consumption  was   about  28  Ib.  per  i.h.p. 
hour.     Every-day  working  figures  would  be  larger  than  these. 
According  to  G.  R.  Henderson  (B  355),  "The  fuel  bills  of  a  rail- 
road constitute  ordinarily  about  10  per  cent  of  the  total  expense 
of  operation,  or  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of  the  actual  cost  of  run- 
ning the  locomotive.     On  important  systems  the  gross  amount 
of  coal  burned  assumes  a  very  large  figure  —  running  into  mil- 
lions of  tons.     On  the  average,  each  engine  will  probably  con- 
sume $5000  worth  of  coal  in  a  year."     Inasmuch  as  a  producer- 
gas  locomotive  will  develop  one  i.h.p.  hour  on  1  Ib.  of  coal  and 
2  Ib.  of  water,  the  remarkable  economy  is  self-evident. 

(b)  In  time  required  to  take  fuel  and  water,  since  the  amounts 
required  will  be  so  very  much  less.     This  will  be  of  vital  impor- 
tance in  through  passenger  trains,  as  there  the  economy  of  time 
is  imperative.     As  a  producer-gas  locomotive  can  run  four  times 
farther  with  the  same  amount  of  coal  and  fourteen  times  farther 
with  the  same  amount  of  water  than  a  similar  steam  locomotive, 
the  marked  advantages  of  the  former  are  evident. 


FUTURE  OF  THE  GAS-PRODUCER.  257 

(c)  In  labor  required  to  fire.     The  amount  of  fuel  used  per 
hour  would  be  only  one-fourth  as  large  as  at  present;  also  with 
the  gas-producer  it  will  be  very  easy  to  arrange  an  automatic 
feeding  device,  thus  reducing  the  manual  labor  to  almost  nothing. 
With  the  large  steam  locomotive  the  problem  of  firing  is  a  very 
serious  one;  there  is  not  enough  room  for  two  men,  and  in  hot 
weather  the  intensity  of  the  labor  is  such  as  to  require  a  man  of 
almost  superhuman  endurance. 

(d)  In  idleness,  since  the  stand-by  losses  are  practically  nil. 

(e)  In  number  of  fuel  and  water  stations.     Only  one-fourth 
as  many  of  the  former  and  one-fourteenth  as  many  of  the  latter 
will  be  required.     This  advantage  is  even  more  marked  on  rail- 
roads that  are  compelled  either  to  use  impure  water  in  their 
boilers  or  to  install  water-softening  plants.     In  the  former  case, 
the  rapid  corrosion  of  the  boiler  necessitates  a  large  amount  of 
repair  work  and  shortens  the  useful  life  of  the  boiler.     Further, 
numerous  disastrous  boiler  explosions,  entailing  large  losses  of 
life  and  property,  have  been  the  result  of  the  corrosive  action  of 
impure  feed  waters.     Where  softening  plants  are  used,  the  cost 
of  installation  and  maintenance  is  always  high  and  requires  a  large 
annual  expenditure  of  money. 

Safer. 

The  danger  of  explosion  is  eliminated  entirely. 

§  335.    Producer-gas  power  plants  for  marine  service. 

Since   producer-gas   marine   plants   are  — 
Smokeless. 

(a)  The  ships  may  be  kept  much  cleaner  and  less  labor  will 
be  required  in  cleaning.  Not  only  will  this  reduce  the  number 
of  the  crew,  but  the  operating  expenses  also  will  be  materially 
decreased. 

(6)  The  comfort  of  passengers  will  be  greatly  increased  and 
the  lines  operating  smokeless  ships  will  be  given  the  preference 
by  tourists.  This  alone  is  a  valuable  advertising  feature  that 
will  net  large  profits  to  the  owners  of  such  vessels. 

(c)  A  war  vessel  may  conceal  its  location  much  more  easily. 
The  clouds  of  black  smoke  often  betray  the  location  of  a  steam 
vessel  long  before  the  vessel  itself  is  visible.  In  the  recent  battle 
of  the  Sea  of  Japan,  the  use  of  smokeless  vessels  would  have  been 
a  decided  advantage  to  either  party.  The  introduction  of  the 


258     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

gas-producer  will  be  the  means  of  greatly  augmenting  the  effec- 
tiveness of  any  navy  that  adopts  it. 

More  economical. 

(a)  In  fuel,  since  a  producer-gas  marine  plant  will  require 
only  about  one-half  the  amount  of  fuel  demanded  by  a  similar 
steam  plant.  As  the  cost  of  fuel  delivered  in  a  vessel  bunker  is 
always  high,  the  economy  of  this  feature,  and  the  ability  to  travel 
twice  as  far  from  the  base  of  supplies  with  the  same  bunker 
capacity  as  a  similar  steamship,  is  self-evident. 

(6)  In  water,  because  a  marine  producer-gas  power-plant  will 
require  only  about  one-sixth  of  the  water  now  used  on  a  steam 
plant  of  the  same  size. 

(c)  In  labor  required  in  fueling;  since  the  amount  of  coal  re- 
quired for  a  given  number  of  horse-power  hours  is  decreased 
50  per  cent,  it  is  evident  that  the  labor  required  in  fueling  will  be 
decreased  a  similar  amount. 

(d)  In  bunker  space,  since  a  given  bunker  volume  will  run  a 
gas-producer  plant  about  twice  as  long  as  a  similar  steam  plant. 

(e)  In  floor  and  deck  space.     The  amount  of  floor  space  re- 
quired in  the  hold  of  the  vessel  will  be  less  than  a  similar  steam 
plant,  and  the  elimination  of  the  large  funnels  from  the  decks  will 
be  a  desirable  feature.     In  the  words  of  Mr.  Lewis  Nixon,  one  of 
the  foremost  naval  engineers  of  the  day  (B  222) :  "  A  gas-producer 
plant  would  greatly  simplify  the  design  of  ships.     The  greatest 
problem  before  the  ship-designer  is  how  to  handle  the  boiler. 
The  production  of  power  by  steam  engine  gets  us  back  at  once  to 
the  man-fired  boiler.     We  must  have  air  and  space  in  which  to 
shovel,  fire-rooms  whose  size  will  prevent  prostration  from  heat, 
and  bunkers  much  larger  than  should  be  necessary,  on  account 
of  the  waste  of  coal.     When  we  get  our  boiler  space  arranged, 
after  obtaining  every  concession  that  can  be  squeezed  out  of  all 
other  factors,  we  proceed  to  build  a  vessel  around  it." 

(/)  In  labor.  With  a  gas-producer  installation,  it  will  be  very 
easy  to  arrange  automatic  feeding  devices  for  delivering  the  fuel 
in  the  producers,  thus  eliminating  the  laborious  hand  stoking  that 
is  now  required  on  steam  plants. 

(g)  In  auxiliary  machinery,  since  the  condensing  apparatus 
would  be  dispensed  with. 

(h)    In  weight,  as  a  gas-producer  plant,  including  gas  engines 


FUTURE  OF  THE  GAS-PRODUCER.  259 

and  producers,  would  be  about  a  third  lighter  than  a  similar 
steam  plant.  On  a  vessel  of  10,000  i.h.p.  this  would  make  a 
difference  of  about  1000  tons  in  the  displacement  required. 
Further,  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  gas-producer  plant  would  be 
lower,  thus  giving  the  vessel  greater  stability. 

(i)  In  stand-by  losses,  when  vessel  is  not  moving,  as  these 
would  be  practically  nil.  This  is  an  advantageous  factor  in  all 
cases  and  especially  with  boats  of  irregular  service  —  as  tugs. 

Safer. 

The  danger  of  boiler  explosion  is  eliminated  entirely.  The 
recent  explosion  on  the  United  States  gunboat  Bennington,  in 
which  sixty-two  lives  were  lost,  should  be  a  strong  object  lesson 
in  favor  of  the  gas-producer  and  the  elimination  of  the  boiler. 

§  336.    Producer-gas  portable  engines. 
Since  producer-gas  portable  engines  are  — 

Smokeless. 

(a)  Their  use  would  eliminate  the  large  fire  losses  to  farm 
buildings  from  sparks  of  portable  engines. 

(6)  The  insurance  rates  on  barns  or  other  buildings  adjacent 
to  where  an  engine  is  used  would  be  less. 

More  economical. 

(a)  In    fuel.     The    average    portable    steam    engine    requires 
10  Ib.  of  coal  per  h.p.  hour.     A  producer-gas  portable  engine 
requires  only  1  Ib.  of  coal  per  h.p.  hour. 

(b)  In  water.     A  producer-gas  portable  engine  requires  about 
2  Ib.  of  water  per  h.p.  hour,  while  a  portable  steam  engine  re- 
quires about  30  Ib.  per  h.p.  hour. 

(c)  In  labor,  since  only  one-tenth  as  much  fuel  is  required  as 
in  a  similar  steam  engine  and  then  this  is  fed  automatically. 
The  producer-gas  engine  will  run  for  several  hours  without  any 
attention  at  all.     With  the  modern  threshing  rig  equipped  with 
automatic   band   cutter  and   feeder,   two  men  are  required   to 
operate  the  rig  —  one  to  run  the  steam  engine  and  one  to  watch 
the   threshing   machine.     If   a   producer-gas   traction   engine   is 
used  in  place  of  the  usual  steam  engine,  one  man  can  operate 
both  engine  and  thresher  with  ease. 

(d)  In  time  required  to  secure  fuel  and  water.     As  only  one- 
tenth  as  much  of  the  former  and  one-fifteenth  of  the  latter  is 


260     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


FUTURE  OF  THE  GAS-PRODUCER. 


261 


required  as  is  used  on  the  usual  steam  engine,  the  economy  of  this 

feature  is  self-evident. 

Safer. 

Since  all  danger  of  explosion  is  eliminated. 

§  337.    Future  development. 

The  three  previous  sections  have  shown  the  advantages  of 
the  gas-producer  for  certain  lines  of  work.  We  will  now  briefly 
outline  the  future  development  of  the  industry.  Fig.  110  shows 
a  100  h.p.  gasoline  motor  car  that  is  now  in  successful  operation 
on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad.  It  will  be  necessary  to  increase 


(Courtesy  of  Engineering  Magazine.) 

FIG.  111.  —  PRODUCER-GAS-ENGINE-DRIVEN  TUGBOAT. 

the  length  of  the  car  but  very  little  in  order  to  secure  room  enough 
for  a  suction  gas-producer.  With  gasoline  at  12c.  per  gallon, 
or  coal  at  $5  per  ton,  the  costs  of  fuel  per  hour  will  be  $1.50  for 
the  former  and  25c.  for  the  latter.  Producer-gas-engine  driven 
motor  cars  will  compete  in  many  cases  with  electric  installations, 
since  no  power  station  is  required  for  the  former,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  100  h.p.  producer-gas  engine  will  give  a  better  fuel  economy 
than  a  large  size  steam  engine.  (See  §  285.) 


262     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

Further,  the  large  electrical  transmission  and  maintenance 
losses  will  be  eliminated  entirely.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the 
future  producer-gas  locomotives  will  be  built  along  the  general 
lines  of  the  motor  car  shown. 

Fig.  Ill  shows  an  80  h.p.  Capitaine  suction  gas-producer  in- 
stalled on  a  tugboat.  One  of  the  European  naval  boards  is  now 
seriously  considering  the  introduction  of  producer-gas  in  connec- 
tion with  the  rebuilding  of  a  certain  navy.*  The  gas-producer 


FIG.  112.  —  HART-PARR  GASOLINE  '  TRACTION  ENGINE. 

has  such  vital  advantages  for  naval  work  that  a  large  number 
will  be  installed  within  a  few  years. 

Fig.  112  shows  a  Hart-Parr  gasoline  traction  engine  used  for 
plowing.  It  will  be  an  easy  matter  to  attach  a  suction  gas- 
producer  to  such  a  rig;  as  a  result  of  such  a  combination,  with 
gasoline  at  12c.  per  gallon  or  coal  at  $5  per  ton,  the  cost  of  operat- 
ing the  producer-gas  engine  will  be  about  one-sixth  of  the  operat- 
ing cost  with  gasoline.  One  of  the  largest  fields  for  the  future 
development  of  the  gas-producer  is  in  connection  with  traction 
engines. 

*  Private  communication. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

GAS-POISONING. 

§  338.    Danger  of  gas-poisoning. 

With  a  gas-producer  plant  in  normal  condition,  there  is  ab- 
solutely no  danger  from  gas-poisoning  except  through  extreme 
carelessness.  However,  as  gas  is  handled  at  a  very  much  lower 
pressure  than  steam,  and  since  its  odor  is  the  only  usual  evidence 
of  a  leak,  versus  the  visible  moisture  and  hissing  sound  of  steam, 
gas  leakage  is  not  usually  detected  as  soon  or  as  easily  as  steam 
leakage.  In  case  of  poor  ventilation,  a  small  leakage  of  gas  is 
much  more  dangerous  than  a  large  amount,  since  in  the  former 
case  the  vitiation  of  the  atmosphere  is  so  slow  as  not  to  be  noticed 
until  its  pathological  effects  become  manifest. 

The  fact  that  gas-producer  plants  are  sometimes  neglected 
and  that  employees  may  be  ignorant  and  careless  makes  it  very 
desirable  to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  the  specific  effects 
and  symptoms  of  gas  poisoning,  as  well  as  first  aid  to  the 
asphyxiated.  The  following  discussion  of  these  points  is  taken 
mainly  from  volumes  2  and  4  of  T.  C.  Allbutt's  "System  of 
Medicine." 

§  339.    Effect  of  carbon  monoxide. 

Carbon  monoxide  owes  its  extremely  poisonous  character  to 
the  fact  that,  when  inspired,  it  enters  into  direct  combination 
with  the  hemoglobin  of  the  blood,  imparting  to  that  fluid  a 
bright  cherry-red  color.  It  forms  so  stable  a  compound  with  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  red  blood  cells  that  they  become  incapable 
of  carrying  oxygen  to  the  tissues.  Inhalation  of  atmospheric 
air  containing  1  to  2  per  cent  CO  may  cause  not  only  unpleasant 
but  very  serious  symptoms.  The  rapidity  with  which  CO  unites 
with  hemoglobin,  and  the  stability  of  the  carboxyhemoglobin 
formed,  render  it  a  peculiarly  dangerous  gas.  Although  under 
these  circumstances  the  blood  has  a  bright  cherry-red  color, 
it  is  quite  incapable  of  carrying  or  imparting  oxygen  to  the  tissues, 

263 


264     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

and  thus,  as  internal  respiration  becomes  impossible,  the  patient 
dies  asphyxiated.  So  insidious  is  it  in  its  operation  and  narcotiz- 
ing in  its  action  that,  if  respired  during  sleep,  the  sufferer  quietly 
passes  into  a  state  of  coma,  which  may  be  very  profound,  particu- 
larly if  the  gas  has  been  breathed  in  small  quantities  and  for  a 
long  time. 

The  quantity  of  CO  absorbed  by  the  blood  is  influenced  by  the 
amount  of  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere.  CO  is  more  poisonous 
when  air  contains  a  diminished  proportion  of  oxygen;  and  should 
CO  be  present  in  such  an  atmosphere,  it  may  cause  death  with 
convulsions  in  so  few  seconds  that  the  blood  in  certain  parts  of 
the  body  may  contain  very  little  carboxyhemoglobin,  death 
having  occurred  too  rapidly  for  the  whole  of  the  blood  to  have 
become  saturated. 

§  340.    Symptoms  of  carbon  monoxide  poisoning. 

Poisoning  by  CO  has  frequently  been  confounded  with  that 
caused  by  CO2.  In  the  case  of  CO,  the  symptoms  are  those  of  a 
narcotic;  the  nervous  system  is  gradually  lulled  into  a  sleep 
which  ends  in  coma;  whereas  in  CO2  poisoning  there  is  usually 
greater  disturbance  of  the  respiration. 

The  symptoms  vary  with  the  amount  of  CO  inhaled.  Usually, 
after  experiencing  a  sense  of  discomfort  with  throbbing  of  the 
blood-vessels,  the  patient  complains  of  severe  headache,  giddi- 
ness, and  great  debility.  These  may  be  followed  by  nausea  and 
vomiting.  A  drowsy  feeling  may  creep  on,  gradually  leading  to 
insensibility,  preceded  occasionally  by  convulsions  and  ending 
in  delirium  or  coma.  The  pulse  is  full  and  bounding,  respiration 
is  accelerated  and  labored,  the  skin  is  dusky,  the  lips  and  ex- 
tremities blue,  and  (in  fatal  cases)  by  degrees  the  patient  dies 
asphyxiated. 

Should  recovery  take  place,  convalescence  is  usually  tardy, 
and  its  course  frequently  interrupted  by  pulmonary  or  nervous 
affections.  There  may  be  loss  of  memory  for  some  time  after- 
wards, and  the  lungs  may  be  the  seat  of  bronchitis  or  a  low  form 
of  pneumonia. 

§  341.    Effect  of  carbon  dioxide. 

This  is  not  a  poison  in  itself,  but  its  specific  effect  is  that  it 
vitiates  the  atmosphere,  which  therefore  will  not  support  life  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  the  proper  amount  of  oxygen. 


GAS-POISONING.  265 

§  342.    Symptoms  of  carbon  dioxide  poisoning. 

Spasmodic  and  convulsive  breathing,  dilated  eyes,  flushed  face, 
swollen  tongue,  and  a  feeble  pulse  are  the  usual  symptoms.  The 
rapidity  and  intensity  of  these  is  dependent  on  the  amount  of 
CO2  present  in  the  atmosphere;  if  that  is  large,  a  state  of  coma 
succeeded  by  death  will  quickly  follow  the  inhalation  of  the  gas. 

§  343.    First  aid  to  sufferer. 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  remove  the  sufferer  from  the  con- 
taminated atmosphere  and  to  send  for  a  physician.  Remove 
all  tight  clothing  from  about  the  neck  and  chest.  If  a  well 
ventilated  and  moderately  warm  room  is  available,  the  patient 
should  be  placed  therein,  stripped  of  his  clothing,  and  warmed 
by  hot  water  bottles  and  hot  linen  cloths. 

Avoid  rough  usage  and  under  no  circumstances  hold  the  body 
up  by  the  feet.  Never  allow  the  body  to  remain  on  the  back 
unless  the  tongue  is  tied.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  draw- 
ing the  tongue  out  and  then  tying  a  cord  around  it  and  the 
chin.  The  rhythmic  traction  of  the  tongue  may  be  very  effec- 
tive if  executed  as  follows:  The  tongue  is  drawn  out  quickly 
from  the  mouth  and  then  allowed  to  re-enter  again.  To  be 
effective,  these  movements  must  be  rhythmic  and  repeated  about 
fifteen  times  per  minute.  The  tongue  may  be  held  with  forceps 
or  a  string  may  be  tied  around  the  tip. 

Since  the  carboxyhemoglobin  is  so  stable  as  not  to  be  affected 
by  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  it  will  be  very  desirable  to 
have  a  supply  of  pure  oxygen  available,  as  this  will  oxidize  the 
poisonous  matter.  In  plants  where  there  is  danger  of  gas-poi- 
soning, a  portable  tank  of  pure  oxygen  should  be  kept  ready  for 
emergencies.  The  tank  should  be  provided  with  a  tube  fitted  at 
its  free  end  with  a  mask  for  covering  the  nostrils  of  the  patient. 

§  344.    Artificial  respiration. 

Place  the  patient  on  the  back  on  an  even  surface,  slightly 
inclined  upward  from  the  feet,  and  secure  the  tongue  as  specified 
in  the  preceding  paragraph.  Then,  standing  or  kneeling  at  the 
patient's  head,  grasp  the  arms  just  above  the  elbows  and  draw 
the  arms  gently  and  steadily  upwards  and  above  the  head,  keep- 
ing them  stretched  in  that  position  for  about  two  seconds.  Then 
turn  the  arms  down  and  press  them  against  the  sides  of  the  chest. 
Repeat  these  movements  alternately  and  uniformly  about  fifteen 


266     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

times  per  minute,  until  a  spontaneous  effort  to  respire  is  noticed. 
Then  cease  the  mechanical  respiratory  movements  and  induce 
circulation  and  warmth. 

The  rhythmic  traction  of  the  tongue  when  worked  in  .synchro- 
nism with  the  arm  movements  is  very  effective  and  is  better  than 
keeping  the  tongue  tied. 

Hypodermic  injections  of  strychnine,  applications  of  the  fara- 
daic  current  to  the  phrenic  nerves,  venesection  and  transfusion 
of  healthy  blood  may  sometimes  be  necessary.  The  various 
methods  should  be  tried  as  long  as  there  is  any  possible  hope  of 
life. 

§  345.   Post-mortem  effects. 

The  usual  proof  that  death  has  been  caused  by  carbon  mo- 
noxide is  the  pink  color  of  the  skin,  and  a  reddening  of  the  face 
and  hands,  which  gives  the  body  an  extraordinary  appearance 
of  Kfe.  The  blood  retains  its  bright  cherry-red  color  for  a  time, 
but  when  shaken  it  forms  a  violet-colored  froth. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

REFERENCE    DATA. 

TABLE  11. 

(KENT.) 

Weights  of  Air,  Vapor  of  Water,  and  Saturated  Mixtures  of  Air  and 

Vapor  at  Different  Temperatures,  under  the  Ordinary 

Atmospheric  Pressure  of  29.921  inches 

of  Mercury. 


^  G 

o 

MIXTURES  OF  AIR  SATURATED  WITH  VAPOR 

^  §  as 

PL. 

Elastic 

Weight  of  Cubic  Ft.  of  the 

Weight 

15  ?G  ;£J 

3 

Force  of 

Mixture  of  Air  and  Vapor 

of 

^ 

o'73^ 

*o  £ 

the  Air 

Vapor 

g 

o3  "^   2 

O       0 

in  Mix- 

mixed 

11 

o'lf 

1? 

ture  of 
Air  and 

Weight 
of  the 

Weight 
of  the 

Total 
W'ghtof 

with  1  Ib. 
of  Air, 

A  2 

"S>j^& 

•J!  o 

Vapor 

Air,  Ibs. 

Vapor, 

Mixture 

pounds 

0)   03 

^^L  «-U^      ^ 

J'o 

Inches  o 

pounds 

pounds 

WHH 

Mercury 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

0° 

.0864 

.044 

29.877 

.0863 

.000079 

.086379 

.00092 

12 

.0842 

.074 

29.849 

.0840 

.000130 

.084130 

.00155 

22 

.0824 

.118 

29.803 

.0821 

.000202 

.082302 

.00245 

32 

.0807 

.181 

29.740 

.0802 

.000304 

.080504 

.00379 

42 

.0791 

.267 

29.654 

.0784 

.000440 

.078840 

.00561 

52 

.0776 

.388 

29.533 

.0766 

.000627 

.077227 

.00819 

62 

.0761 

.556 

29.365 

.0747 

.000881 

.075581 

.01179 

72 

.0747 

.785 

29.136 

.0727 

.001221 

.073921 

.01680 

82 

.0733 

1.092 

28.829 

.0706 

.001667 

.072267 

.02361 

92 

.0720 

1.501 

28.420 

.0684 

.002250 

.070717 

.03289 

102 

.0707 

2.036 

27.885 

.0659 

.002997 

.068897 

.04547 

112 

.0694 

2.731 

27.190 

.0631 

.003946 

.067046 

.06253 

122 

.0682 

3.621 

26.300 

.0599 

.005142 

.065042 

.08584 

132 

.0671 

4.752 

25.169 

.0564 

.006639 

.063039 

.11771 

142 

.0660 

6.165 

23.756 

.0524 

.008473 

.060873 

.16170 

152 

.0649 

7.930 

21.991 

.0477 

.010716 

.058416 

.22465 

162 

.0638 

10.099 

19.822 

.0423 

.013415 

.055715 

.31713 

172 

.0628 

12.758 

17.163 

.0360 

.016682 

.052682 

.46338 

182 

.0618 

15.960 

13.961 

.0288 

.020536 

.049336 

.71300 

192 

.0609 

19.828 

10.093 

.0205 

.025142 

.045642 

1.22643 

202 

.0600 

24.450 

5.471 

.0109 

.030545 

.041445 

2.80230 

212 

.0591 

29.921 

0.000 

.0000 

.036820 

.036820 

Infinite. 

267 


268     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


TABLE  12.     (KENT.) 

RELATIVE  HUMIDITY  OF  AIR,  PER  CENT. 


32 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
110 
120 
140 


Difference  between  the  Dry  and  Wet  Thermometers,  Degree  F. 


7    8    9 


I0|ll|l2|l3|l4|l5|l6|l7|l8|l9|2o|2l|22|2324|262830 


Relative  Humidity,  Saturation  being  100 


401  Jl  1 21 1 121  31 

76;68|60l534538!3022! 


t.-1-_I-^1_. 

93187:807467  61 

94898478736863 

95190868177726864 


837975726864 


7S 


96|92  88  85  81 

97939086838077 

97  94  90  87  84  81 

97  94,91  88  85  83  80 

97  95'92  89  87  84  82:79  77 


55  50  44  38  33  27  22 
5S  53  48  44  39  34 


7571 
74 
78:76737067 


68  65  62  59  56:53  50  47^4  41  39  30  34  32  29;26  22  17 


57  54  51  47 


30  26  22 


605552  484440361332926 


68651625957 

6562 
75  72  70;67:65  62  60  58  56  54 


ti05 


18  14  10 

23  19  16|13  101  7 
44141  38  3532  29  2623  20i  18 


3 
51  49  47  44  42  39  37  35|33'29  25  21 


55  53  50  48  46  44  42  40  38'34  30  27 

„„ .58  56  54  51  49  47.45  44,42  38  35  31 

75  73|71|68  66  64162,60  58i56|55i53|51  49|48|44  41  38 


TABLE  13.     (FROM  SUPLEE.) 

COEFFICIENTS  OF  RADIATION. 

B.  t.  u.  per  1  degree  F.,  pel 
Surface  square  foot,  per  hour 

Silver,  polished    02657 

Copper,  polished 03270 

Tin,  polished 04395 

Tinned  iron,  polished 08585 

Iron,  sheet,  polished 0920 

Iron,    ordinary 5662 

Glass 5948 

Cast  iron,  new 6480 

Cast  iron,  rusted 6868 

Sawdust 7215 

Sand,  fine 7400 

Water 1.0853 

Oil 1.4800 

TABLE  14.     (FROM  SUPLEE.) 

RADIATION  RATIOS. 


Difference  in 
tempera- 
ture, Fahr. 
Degrees 

Ratio 

Difference  in 
tempera- 
ture, Fahr. 
Degrees 

Ratio 

Difference  in 
tempera- 
ture, Fahr. 
Degrees 

Ratio 

10 

.15 

160 

.61 

310 

2.34 

20 

.18 

170 

.65 

320 

2.40 

30 

.20 

180 

.68 

330 

2.47 

40 

.23 

190 

.73 

340 

2.54 

50 

.25 

200 

.78 

350 

2.60 

60 

.27 

210 

.82 

360 

2.68 

70 

.32 

220 

.86 

370 

2.77 

80 

.35 

230 

.90 

380 

2.84 

90 

.38 

240 

1.95 

390 

2.93 

100 

.40 

250 

2.00 

400 

3.02 

110 

.44 

260 

2.05 

410 

3.10 

120 

.47 

270 

2.10 

420 

3.20 

130 

.50 

280 

2.16 

430 

3.30 

140 

1.54 

290 

2.21 

440 

3.40 

150 

1.57 

300 

2.27 

450 

3.50 

For  use  of  this  table  see  §  27. 


REFERENCE  DATA. 


269 


TABLE  15. 

RADIATION  LOSS  IN  IRON  PIPES. 
(FROM  SUPLEE.) 


Units  of  heat  (B.  t.  u.)  emitted,  per  square  foot,  per  hr. 

Mean  tem- 

Temperature of  air  =  70  degrees  F. 

perature  of 
pipes,  Fahr. 
degrees 

By  convection 

By  radiation 

SiloilG 

By  convection  and 
radiation  combined 

Air  still 

Air  moving 

Air  still 

Air  moving 

80 

5.04 

8.40 

7.43 

12.47 

15.83 

90 

11.84 

19.73 

15.31 

27.15 

35.04 

100 

19.53 

32.55 

23.47 

43.00 

56.02 

110 

27.86 

46.43 

31.93 

57.79 

78.36 

120 

36.66 

61.10 

40.82 

77.48 

101.92 

130 

45.90 

76.50 

50.00 

95.90 

126.50 

140 

55.51 

92.52 

59.63 

115.14 

152.15 

150 

65.45 

109.18 

69.69 

135.14 

178.87 

160 

75.68 

126.13 

80.19 

155.87 

206.32 

170 

86.18 

143.30 

91.12 

177.30 

234.42 

180 

96.93 

161.55 

102.50 

199.43 

264.05 

190 

107.90 

179.83 

114.45 

222.35 

294.28 

200 

119.13 

198.55 

127.00 

246.13 

325.55 

210 

130.49 

217.48 

139.96 

270.49 

357.48 

220 

142.20 

237.00 

155.27 

297.47 

392.27 

230 

153.95 

256.58 

169.56 

323.51 

426.14 

240 

165.90 

279.83 

184.58 

350.48 

464.41 

250 

178.00 

296.66 

200.18 

378.18 

496.84 

260 

189.90 

316.50 

214.36 

404.26 

530.86 

270 

202.70 

337.83 

233.42 

436.12 

571.25 

280 

215.30 

358.85 

251.21 

466.51 

610.06 

290 

228.55 

380.91 

267.73 

496.28 

648.64 

300 

240.85 

401.41 

279.12 

519.97 

680.53 

For  use  of  this  table  see  §  27. 


TABLE  16. 
RADIATION  LOSS  THROUGH  WALLS. 

(FROM  SUPLEE.) 

LOSS,  IN  BRITISH  THERMAL  UNITS,  PER  SQUARE  FOOT,  PER  HOUR, 
FOR  1  DEGREE  F.  DIFFERENCE. 


Thickness 
in  inches 

Brick 

Stone 

Thickness 
in  inches 

Brick 

Stone 

4 

8 
12 
16 
20 

.273 
.223 

.188 
.163 
.144 

.330 
.312 
.295 
.280 
.267 

24 
28 
32 
36 
40 

.129 
.116 
.106 
.097 
.090 

.255 
.244 
.234 
.224 
.216 

For  use  of  this  table  see  §  27. 


270     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


TABLE  17. 

EFFICIENCY  OF  PIPE  COVERINGS. 

(TRANS.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  VOL.  VI,  P.  168. 


Substance  1  in.  thick 
Heat  applied,  310  deg.  F. 

British 
thermal 
units  per 
sq.  ft.  per 
minute 

Solid 
matter  in 
1  sq.  ft.  1  in. 
thick,  parts 
in  1000 

Air 
included, 
parts  in 
1000 

1.  Loose  wool  
2    Live-geese  feathers  

1.35 
1  60 

56 
50 

944 
950 

3   Loose  lampblack  

1  63 

56 

944 

4    Hair  felt 

1  72 

185 

815 

5    Carded  cotton  wool 

1  73 

20 

980 

6    Compressed  lampblack            .    . 

1  77 

244 

756 

7   Cork  charcoal                       

1  98 

53 

947 

8    Loose  calcined  magnesia   

207 

23 

977 

9.  Best  slag-wool  
10.  Light  carbonate  of  magnesia  
1  1  .  White-pine  charcoal  
12    Paper  

2.17 
2.28 
2.32 
2  33 

60 
119 

940 

881 

13    Loose  fossil-meal 

2  42 

60 

Q40 

14    Cork  strips  bound  on  

2  43 

15.  Compressed  carb.  of  magnesia  
16.  Crowded  fossil-meal  
17.  Paste  of  fossil-meal  with  hair  
18.  Straw  rope  wound  spirally  
19.  Loose  rice  chaff  

2.57 
2.62 
2.78 
3.00 
3  12 

150 
112 

850 

888 

20.  Ground  chalk  (Paris  white)  

343 

253 

747 

21.  Loose  bituminous-coal  ashes 

350 

22.  Blotting-paper  wound  tight 

350 

23.  Asbestos  paper  wound  tight  
24.  Paste  of  fossil-meal  with  asbestos 
25.  Loose  anthracite-coal  ashes  
26.  Paste  of  clay  and  vegetable  fiber.  .  . 
27.  Dry  plaster  of  paris  
28.  Anthracite-coal  powder  

3.62 
3.67 
4.50 
5.15 
5.15 
595 

368 
506 

632 
494 

29.  Compressed  calcined  magnesia  
30.  Air  alone  

7.10 
800 

285 

o 

715 
1000 

31.  Fine  asbestos  

8  17 

81 

919 

32.  Sand  

10  35 

529 

471 

REFERENCE  DATA 


271 


TABLE  18. 
(R.  D.  WOOD  &  Co.) 

DISCHARGES  OF  GAS,  IN  CUBIC  FEET  PER  HOUR,  THROUGH  PIPES  OF  VARIOUS 
DIAMETERS  AND  LENGTHS,  AND  AT  DIFFERENT  PRESSURES  OF  WATER,  IN 
INCHES. 

These  results  must  be  applied  with  care.  No  allowance  is 
made  in  the  tables  for  obstructions  in  the  pipes.  For  every 
right-angle  bend  add  iV  inch  to  the  pressure  of  water. 

The  use  of  this  table  may  be  extended  by  the  application  of 
the  following  laws: 

1.  The  discharge  of  gas  will  be  doubled  when  the  length  of 
the  pipe  is  only  one-fourth  of  any  of  the  lengths  given  in  the 
table. 

2.  The  discharge  of  gas  will  be  only  one-half  when  the  length 
of  the  pipe  is  four  times  greater  than  the  lengths  given  in  the 
table. 

3.  The  discharge  of  gas  is  doubled  by  the  application  of  four 
times  the  pressure. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  .4  ;   SEE  §  28. 


1^  IN.  DIAMETER 

2  IN.  DIAMETER 

3  IN.  DIAMETER 

Lengths  of 

PRESSURES 

Pressures 

Pressures 

in  Yards 

1. 

1.5 

2.  |  2.5 

1.  |  1.5 

2.  |  2.5 

1. 

1.5 

2. 

2.5 

Discharges 

Discharges 

Discharges 

100 

588 

720 

832 

932 

1208 

1480 

1708 

1908 

3100 

4075 

4700 

5260 

150 

478 

588 

680 

759 

986 

1208 

1394 

1560 

2718 

3329 

3840 

4293 

200 

416 

509 

590 

655 

853 

1046 

1208 

1350 

2350 

2881 

3328 

3718 

300 

351 

420 

478 

537 

697 

853 

984 

1103 

1920 

2353 

2714 

3037 

500 

263 

323 

372 

416 

540 

661 

762 

853 

1488 

1823 

2108 

2353 

750 

215 

263 

304 

340 

441 

540 

624 

697 

1216 

1488 

1718 

1920 

1000 

186 

228 

284 

294 

381 

468 

540 

534 

1054 

1289 

1488 

1644 

1250 

166 

204 

236 

263 

342 

419 

484 

540 

942 

1155 

1332 

1354 

1500 

152 

186 

215 

240 

312 

381 

442 

493 

859 

1052 

1216 

1357 

1750 

141 

172 

199 

223 

280 

353 

408 

457 

795 

974 

1130 

1279 

2000 

132 

161 

186 

208 

270 

331 

381 

427 

744 

912 

1054 

1176 

4  IN.  DIAMETER 

6  IN.  DIAMETER 

8  IN.  DIAMETER 

100 

6831 

8370 

9658 

10800 

18820 

23  050 

26600 

29  770 

38  650 

47  350 

54640 

61  100 

150 

5580 

6830 

7888 

8817 

15  370 

18  820 

21  700 

24  300 

31  550 

38640 

44600 

49940 

200 

4829 

5920 

6826 

7674 

13310 

16400 

18800 

21  000 

27  340 

33  460  38  600  43  200 

300 

3944 

4829 

5577 

6233 

10  870 

13  310 

15  370 

17  180  22  310i27  340  31  550  35  270 

500 

3055 

3740 

4320 

4829 

8418 

10310 

11  940 

13  310 

1728021  17024400;27340 

750 

2420 

3055 

3522 

3944 

6872 

8418 

9720 

10870 

14  100 

17  280 

19800 

22310 

1000 

2160 

2646 

3052 

3413 

5950 

7290 

8420 

9410 

12  220 

14960 

17280 

19320 

1250 

1932 

2366 

2732 

3052 

4340 

5320 

7540 

8415 

10940 

13650 

15520 

17280 

1500 

1761 

2160 

2490 

2789 

4860 

5970 

6860 

7672 

9900 

12  200 

14040 

15800 

1750 

1634 

2000 

2310 

2582 

4500 

5500 

6360 

7115 

9237 

11  300 

13040 

14600 

2000 

1530 

1870 

2150 

2415 

4209 

5155 

5970 

6655 

8640 

10585 

12  200 

13670 

272     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


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REFERENCE  DATA. 


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274      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


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REFERENCE  DATA. 


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TABLE  20. 

SOLUBILITY  OF  VARIOUS  GASES  IN  WATER 


One  volume  of  water  at  20  deg.  C.  absorbs  the  following  volumes  of  gas 
reduced  to  0  deg.  C.  and  760  mm.  pressure 


Name  of  gas 

Symbol 

Volumes 

Carbonic  oxide  
Carbon  dioxide  

CO 
CO2 

0.023 
0  901 

Hydrogen 

H, 

0  01Q 

Methane 

CH4 

0  035 

Nitrogen                               

N 

0  014 

Oxvffen 

O2 

0028 

Air 

0  017 

TABLE  21. 

MELTING-POINTS  OF  VARIOUS  METALS  AND  SALTS 
(FROM  CARNELLY  MELTING-  AND  BOILING-POINT  TABLES.) 


Alphabetically 

By  Temperatures 

Aluminum  
Antimony 

Deg.  C. 
..     660 
432 

Tin 

Deg.  C. 
.  .  .     233 
.  .  .     268 
320 

Bismuth 

Barium  chloride 

860 

Cadmium  . 

Bismuth    
Calcium  fluoride  
Cadmium  
Cadmium  chloride 

'.  .     268 
.  .     902 
.  .      320 
541 

Lead  

334 

Antimony  

432 

Zinc  
Cadmium  chloride 

.  .  .     433 
54  1 

Copper 

1095 

Aluminum 

660 

Lead                                  •  • 

..     334 

..     734 

772 

Potassium  chloride  
Sodium  chloride  
Barium  chloride 

.  .  .     734 

.  .  .     772 
860 

Potassium  chloride  
Sodium  chloride 

Tin 

233 

Calcium  chloride 

902 

Zinc           

.  .     433 

Copper  

.  ..   1095 

TABLE  22. 

VARIATION  IN  THE  VOLUMETRIC  SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  CARBONIC  ACID. 

SEE  §  20. 

The  following  table  was  calculated  by  Professor  Akerman 
(B  67).  The  specific  heat  is  in  calories  per  cubic  meter,  and  for 
each  temperature  the  figure  represents  the  mean  value  of  the 
specific  heat  at  constant  pressure  between  0  degrees  C.  and  t 

degrees  C. 

Specific  heat 

400 467 

500.  . 
600.. 
700.. 
800. 


.487 
.507 
.525 
.544 
900.  .  .562 


1000. 
1100. 
1200. 


.580 
.598 
.615 


276     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 


FUEL  DATA. 

COAL. 

A  bushel  of  bituminous  coal  weighs  76  pounds  (Pennsylvania) 
and  contains  1.554  cubic  feet;  in  Ohio  and  West  Virginia  the 
weight  is  80  Ib. 

41  to  45  cubic  feet  bituminous  coal  =  1  ton,  2240  Ib. 

34  to  41  cubic  feet  anthracite  coal  =  l  ton,  2240  Ib. 

CHARCOAL. 

A  bushel  of   charcoal  weighs  20  Ib.  and  contains   2748  cu.  in. 
123  cubic  feet  charcoal  =  1  ton,  2240  Ib. 

COKE. 

A  bushel  of  coke  weighs  40  Ib. 

70.9  cubic  feet  coke  =  1  ton,  2240  Ib. 

WOOD. 
2J  Ib.  of  dry  wood=l  Ib.  of  coal. 

COMPOSITION   OF   WOOD. 


Average 

Oak,  120  yrs. 

Birch,  60  yrs. 

Willow 

Carbon  

50 

50.97 

50.59 

51.25 

Hydrogen  

6 

6.02 

6.21 

6.19 

Oxygen 

41 

41.96 

42.16 

41  98 

Nitrogen 

2 

1.27 

1.01 

.98 

Ash  

.  .  2 

1.93 

2.1 

3.67 

The  calorific  value  of  dry  wood  is  about  7000  B.  t.  u.  and  of 
air-dried  wood  about  5600  B.  t.  u. 

The  calorific  intensity  is  very  low. 

Ordinary  firewood  contains,  by  analysis,  from  27  to  80  per  cent 
of  hygrometric  moisture. 

1  cord  of  hickory  or  maple  weighs  4500  Ib. 

1  cord  of  white  oak  weighs  3850  Ib. 

1  cord  of  beech,  red  oak,  or  black  oak  weighs  3250  Ib. 

1  cord  of  poplar,  chestnut,  or  elm  weighs  2350  Ib. 

1  cord  of  average  pine  weighs  2000  Ib. 

A  cord  of  wood  =  4X4X8  =  128  cu.  ft.  =  about  56  per  cent 
solid  wood  and  44  per  cent  interstitial  spaces. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY    OP   GAS-PRODUCERS. 

The  following  abbreviations  have  been  used  in  the  text: 

A.  d.  mines,   Annales  des  mines. 

Gassier' s,  Gassier 's  Magazine. 

Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal. 

Eng.  Lond.,   The  Engineer   (London). 

Eng.   Mag.,   Engineering  Magazine. 

Eng.  News,  Engineering  News. 

Eng.  Rec.,  Engineering  Record. 

Engng.,  Engineering. 

Engr.,  The  Engineer  (Chicago). 

Gasmt.,  Die  Gasmotorentechnik. 

I.  C.  T.  R.,  Iron  and  Coal  Trades  Review. 

Iron  S.  M.,  Iron  and  Steel  Magazine. 

J.I.  and  S.  I.,  Journal  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute. 

Jour.  F.  I.,  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute. 

Jour.  Assn.  Eng.  Soc.,  Journal  of  the  Association  of  Engineering  Societies. 

J.  S.  C.  I.,  Journal  Society  Chemical  Industry. 

Mar.  Eng.,  Marine  Engineering. 

Mem.  Soc.  Ing.  Civ.,  France,  Memoires  de  la  Societe  des  Ingenieurs  Civils, 

France. 

N.  B.  M.  A.    National  Brick  Manufacturers  Association  report. 
Prac.   Eng.,   Practical  Engineer   (London). 
Proc.  Engs.  Soc.  of  W.  Pa.,  Proceedings  of  the  Engineers'  Society  of  Western 

Pennsylvania. 

Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Proceedings  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers. 
Proc.  I.  M.  E.,  Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 
Sci.  Am.,  Scientific  American. 
Sci.  Am.  Sup.,  Scientific  American  Supplement. 

Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  Mining  Engineers. 
Trans.  A.  C.  S.,  Transactions  American  Ceramic  Society. 
Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Transactions  American  Society  Mechanical  Engineers. 
Zeitschr.  d.  V.  D.  Ing.,  Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  Deutscher  Ingenieure. 

CHRONOLOGICAL  ARRANGEMENT. 

1841. 
B  1.   A.  d.  mines,  Vol.  IV,  p.  436.     Reference  to  the  value  of  the  use  of 

steam  in  gas-producers. 
B  2.   A.d.  mines,  Vol.  XX,  p.  463.     Illustration  of  Ebelmen  gas-producer. 

1843. 

B  3.    A.  d.  mines,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  210.     Illustration  of  Ebelmen  gas-producer. 
B  4.   A.  d.  mines,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  222.     Illustration  of  Ebelmen  gas-producer. 
B  5.   A.d.  mines,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  225  and  258.     Discussion  of  the  effect  of  steam 
in  gas-producers. 

1857. 

B  6.   Proc.  I.  M.  E.,  p.  103.     Discussion  of  a  gas  furnace  for  the  develop- 
ment of  intense  heat. 

277 


278     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

1862. 
B  7.   Proc.  I.  M.  E.,  p.  21.     Discussion  of  regenerative  furnaces. 

1866. 
B  8.   Mem.  Soc.  Ing.  Civ.,  France,  p.   585.     Complete  description  of  the 

Beaufume  producer. 

B  9.  Transactions  of  the  Institute  of  Engineers  in  Scotland,  Vol.  I,  p.  14. 
General  description  of  the  Beaufume  producer. 

1868. 

B  10.  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  (London),  Vol.  XXII,  p.  293.  Dis- 
cussion of  the  Siemens  producer. 

1869. 

B  11.  Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel,  by  F.  Kohn,  p.  132.  Discussion  and 
illustration  of  the  Siemens  gas-producer. 

1872. 

B  12.  Proc.  I.  M.  E.,  p.  97.  Extensive  discussion  of  steam  jets  and  blowers; 
gives  several  illustrations. 

1874. 

B  13.  Mem.  Soc.  Ing.  Civ.  France,  p.  678.  Results  obtained  with  Ebelmen's 
producer.  18?5 

B  14.   Percy's  Metallurgy,  volume  on  Fuel,  p.  532.     Discusses  gaseous  fuel. 
B  15.    Percy's  Metallurgy,  volume  on  Fuel,  p.  517.     Description  of  Ekman 

and  Wedding  producers. 
B  16.   Percy's  Metallurgy,  volume  on  Iron  and  Steel,  p.  463.     Discussion  of 

waste  heat.  187g 

B  17.  Etudes  sur  les  Combustibles,  by  M.  Lencauchez.  Extensive  treatise 
devoted  to  the  gasification  of  fuel  and  the  applications  of  fuel  gas. 
Gives  plates  with  exceptionally  good  illustrations. 

1879. 

B  18.  Combustion  of  Coal,  by  W.  M.  Barr,  p.  128.  Discusses  the  pre-heat- 
ing  of  air. 

B  19.  Fuel,  its  Combustion  and  Economy,  by  Clark,  p.  282.  Discusses 
gas  furnaces  and  gas-producers,  decomposition  of  fuel  in  gas- 
producers,  and  gives  summary  of  results  obtained  by  Ebelmen. 

1880. 
B  20.    Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  27.     General  description,  with  good 

illustration  of  the  Tessie  producer. 
B  21.    Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  289.     Discussion  of  the  Strong  gas 

system. 
B  22.  Treatise  on  Fuel,  by  R.  Galloway,  p.  86.     Description  of  Siemens 

gas-producer.  1881 

B  23.  Gasfeuerung  und  Gasofen,  by  H.  Stegmann.  Numerous  references 
to  the  use  of  producer-gas  in  the  ceramic  industry. 

B  24.  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  IX,  p.  309.  Discussion  of  a  fluxing  gas- 
producer. 

B  25.  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,.Vol.  IX,  p.  310.  Discussion  of  gas-producers  using 
blast,  and  good  illustrations  of  Swedish  types  for  using  wood. 

B  26.  Zeitschrift  fur  physikalische  Chemie,  Vol.  II,  p.  161.  Extensive  dis- 
cussion of  the  action  in  a  gas-producer. 

1883. 

B  27.  Eng.  News,  December  1st.  Discusses  invention  of  gas,  and  gives 
early  history. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  279 

B  28.   J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol.  II,  p.  62.     Discusses  the  economical  use  of  fuel. 

B  29.  J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol.  II,  p.  453.  Discussion  of  the  Wilson  gas-producer 
and  the  recovery  of  by-products. 

B  30.  J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol.  II,  p.  504.  Extensive  discussion  of  the  advantages  of 
gaseous  fuel. 

B  31.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  LXXIII,  p.  311.  Discussion  of  producer-gas  for 
motive  power,  with  several  illustrations. 

B  32.  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XI,  p..  292.  Discussion  of  analysis  of  fur- 
nace gases. 

1884. 

B  33.  Handbuch  der  Eisenhiittenkunde,  by  Ledebur.  Numerous  refer- 
ences to  the  use  of  and  value  of  fuel  gas  to  the  iron  industry. 

B  34.  J.  I.  and  S.  I.,  Vol.  I,  p.  72.  Utilization  of  gaseous  fuel;  description, 
with  illustration,  of  producer  and  scrubber. 

B  35.  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XII,  p.  93.  Illustration  and  general  descrip- 
tion of  Langdon  gas-producer. 

1885. 

B  36.    Engng.,  October  30th.     Discussion  of  water-gas  production. 

B  37.  J.  I.  and  S.  I.,  Vol.  I,  p.  126.  General  description  and  good  illustra- 
tion of  modified  form  of  Siemens  producer. 

B  38.  J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  439.  Extensive  discussion  of  flame  action,  and 
production  of  gas  in  Siemens  modified  producer. 

1886. 

B  39.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  LXXXIV,  p.  4.  Classification,  historical  data; 
illustrates  various  forms  of  producers  and  gives  extensive  table 
showing  the  gas  analyses  from  fifty-seven  different  producers. 

1887. 

B  40.  Coal  tar  and  Ammonia,  by  G.  Lunge.  Numerous  references  to  the 
extraction  of  tar  and  ammonia  from  gas. 

B  41.  Elements  of  Metallurgy  by  J.  A.  Phillips,  p.  98.  Discussion  of  Sie- 
mens gas-producer. 

B  42.  Feuerungskunde,  by  Ludwig  Ramdohr,  p.  78.  Thorough  discussion 
of  the  gasification  of  fuel. 

1888. 

B  43.  J.  I.  and  S.  I.,  Vol.  I,  p.  86.  Extensive  discussion  of  the  use  of  water 
gas  and  producer-gas  for  metallurgical  purposes. 

1889. 
B  44.   Chemical  Technology,  by  Groves  and  Thorpe,  Vol.  I,  p.  250.     General 

discussion  of  foreign  gas-producers. 

B  45.   J.  I.  and  S.  I.,  Vol.  II,  p.  139.     General  discussion  of  gaseous  fuel. 
B  46.   J.  I.  and  S.  I.,  Vol.  II,  p.  256.     Description  and  illustrations  of  a 

Siemens  furnace  arranged  to  recover  waste  gases. 
B  47.   J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  503.     Description  and  illustration  of  Mond 

gas  plant. 
B  48.   Practical  Treatise  on  Manufacturing  Bricks,  by  C.  T.  Davis,  p.  246. 

Discussion  of  the  use  of  gas  in  burning  brick. 

1890. 

B  49.  Eng.  News,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  317.  Discussion  of  fuel  gas,  giving  illus- 
tration of  the  Loomis  system. 

B  50.  Les  Moteurs  a  Gaz  et  les  Moteurs  a  Petrole,  by  C.  Wehrlin,  p.  61. 
Gives  illustration  of  a  gas-producer. 

B  51.    Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XVIII,  p.  609.     Notes  on  fuel  gas. 

B  52.  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XVIII,  p.  859.  Thorough  discussion  of  the 
energy,  utilization,  and  gasification  of  fuel. 


280     A   TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

1891. 

B  53.   Clay  Worker,  May  15,  p.  499.     Brief  discussion  of  the  production  of 

gas. 

B  54.    Clay  Worker,  June  15,  p.  596.     Brief  discussion  of  gaseous  fuel. 
B  55.    Clay  Worker,  July  15,  p.  25.     Brief  discussion  of  the  physics  of  gaseous 

fuels. 
B  56.    Dictionary  of  Applied  Chemistry,  by  Thorpe,  Vol.  II,  p.  217.     Brief 

discussion  of  producer-gas. 
B  57.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Vol.  LI,  May  9,  p.  562.     Description  of  producer 

plant  for  roasting-kilns;  gives  summary  of  fuel  consumption. 
B  58.    Eng.  News,  Vol.  XXV,  p.  512  and  521.     Discussion  of  fuel  gas. 


p. 
I, 


B  59.    Eng.  News,  Vol.  XXVI,  p.   329.     Discussion  of  the  gasification  of 

anthracite. 
B  60.    Gasfeuerungen   by   Ledebur.     Numerous   references   to   producer-gas 

and   the   manufacture   of   same. 
B  61.   Jour.  F.  I.,  Vol.  CXXXII,  p.  424.     Fuel  gas;  its  production  and  distri- 

bution. 
B  62.   J.  I.  and  S.  I.,  Vol.  II,  p.  104.     Description  of  a  Thwaite  gas  plant, 

giving  several  drawings. 
B  63.   Moteurs  a  Gaz,   by  Gustave  Chauveau,  p.  275.     Brief  description  of 

gas-producers. 
B  64.   N.  B.  M.  A.,  p.  134.     Extensive  discussion  of  the  use  of  producer-gas 

for  burning  brick. 
B  65.   Proc.  I.  M.  E.,  p.  47.      Extensive  discussion  of  gas  furnaces;  gives 

sixty-three  illustrations. 
B  66.    Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  128.     Physical  and  chemical  equa- 

tions; gives  thorough  discussion  of  the  chemistry  of  a  gas-pro- 

ducer, with  numerous  tables. 

1892. 
B  67.   Berg-  und   Huttenmannisches   Jahrbuch   der  k.  k.     Bergakademien, 

Vol.  XL,  p.  81-203.     German  translation  of  Prof.  R.  Akerman's 

paper   on   gaseous   fuel;    discusses   gas-production    in   detail   and 

gives  drawings  of  seven  wood  producers. 
B  68.   Chemical   Technology,    by    Rudolf   Wagner,    translated    by   Crookes, 

p.  41.     Brief  description  and  illustration  of  the  Liirmann,  Boetius 

and  Siemens  gas-producers. 
B  69.   Eng.  News,  Vol.  I,  p.  540.     Gives  history  of  fuel  gas;  also  discusses 

manufacture  of  water  gas  and  producer-gas. 
B  70.   School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  2.     The  valuation  of  fuel 

gas;  discusses  method  of  determination. 
B  71.   Trait6  des  Moteurs  a  Gaz,  by  A.  Witz,  Vol.  I,  p.  115.     Brief  descrip- 

tion of  gas-producers. 
B  72.    Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XX,  p.  635.     Discussion  of  the  mechanical 

effects  of  steam  on  the  gas-producer. 

1893. 

B  73.   N.  B.  M.  A.,  p.  151.     Discussion  of  the  use  of  producer-gas  for  bum- 

ing  brick. 
B  74.  Proc.  Engs.  Soc.  of  W.  Pa.,  Vol.  IX,  p.  184  and  237.     Gas-producers 

for  metallurgical  work. 
B  75.   Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CXII,  p.  2.     Discussion  of  gas  power  for  electric 

lighting. 
B  76.    Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  134  and  585.     Discussion  of  fuel 

consumption  in  a  Taylor  producer. 
B  77.    Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXII,  p.  371.     Description  and  illustration 

of    Wellman    gas-producer,    with    discussion    of    manufacture    of 

producer-gas. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  281 

1894. 

B  78.    Cassier's,  December,  p.  123.     Gas-producers  for  boilers. 

B  79.  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  May  12th.  Illustration  and  description  of  a 
Dauber  gas-producer. 

B  80.  Jour.  F.  I.,  November,  p.  321.  Description  of  the  American  Gas- 
Furnace  Co.'s  system  of  fuel-gas  production. 

B  81.  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  289.  Description  and  illustrations 
of  Swedish  gas-producers  for  coal  and  wood. 

B  82.  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  573.  Brief  notes  on  a  Taylor  gas- 
producer. 

B  83.  Zeitschr.  d.  V.  D.  Ing.,  November  10th.  Brief  discussion  of  the  theo- 
retical and  practical  problems  involved  with  producer-gas. 

1895. 

B  84.  Eng.  Lond.,  July  5th.  Discussion  of  the  Thwaite  system  of  gas 
power. 

B  85.  Iron  Age,  March  14th.  Description  and  illustration  of  Kitson  pro- 
ducer, with  discussion  of  fuel  gas. 

B  86.  Zeitschr.  d.  V.  D.  Ing.,  December  21st  and  28th.  Full  details  of  the 
test  of  a  producer-gas  power  plant;  gives  summary  of  results. 

1896. 

B  87.  Colliery  Guardian,  March  27th.  Discussion  of  history  and  efficiency 
of  gas-producers. 

B  88.    Eng.  Lond.,  August  28th.      Discussion  of  a  Thwaite  gas  plant. 

B  89.    Eng.  Mag.,  Vol.  XI,  p.  905.     The  important  features  of  producer-gas. 

B  90.    Iron  Age,  April  30th.     Description  and  illustration  of  Kitson  producer. 

B  91.  Jour.  Assn.  Eng.  Soc.,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  169.  Brief  discussion  of  gas- 
producers. 

B  92.  Manufacture  and  Properties  of  Structural  Steel,  by  H.  H.  Campbell, 
p.  95  and  117.  Brief  reference  to  producer-gas. 

B  93.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  666.  Discusses  fundamental  principles  of 
gas-producers. 

B  94.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  112.  Discusses  efficiency  and  forms  of  gas- 
producers. 

B  95.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  149.  Discusses  steam  blowers  for  gas- 
producers. 

B  96.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  174.  Describes  various  English  types  of 
gas-producers. 

B  97.   Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  251.     Discusses  tar,  ammonia,  and  Mond  gas. 

B  98.   Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  294.     Discusses  regenerative  furnaces. 

B  99.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CXXIII,  p.  328.  Efficiencies  of  gas-producers; 
thorough  discussion,  with  reports  of  several  tests. 

B  100.  The  Gas  and  Oil  Engine,  by  Dugald  Clerk,  p.  354.  Discussion  of 
producer-gas,  with  description  of  several  types  of  producers. 

B  101.  The  "Otto"  Cycle  Gas  Engine,  by  William  Norris,  p.  198.  Descrip- 
tion of  several  gas  plants. 

1897. 

B  102.   Eng.  Lond.,  October  29th.     Description  of  a  Thwaite  gas  plant. 

B  103.  Fuel,  by  Sexton,  p.  139.  Extensive  discussion  of  producers  and 
producer-gas. 

B  104.  Iron  Age,  September  30th.  Complete  description  of  Kitson  pro- 
ducer, with  report  of  test. 

B  105.  Practical  Treatise  on  Modern  Gas  and  Oil  Engines,  by  Frederick 
Grover,  p.  176.  Application  of  producer-gas  in  engines. 

B  106.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CXXIX,  p.  190.  Extensive  discussion  of  Mond 
gas  and  its  applications. 

B  107.    Railroad  Gazette,  April  16th.     Discussion  of  future  fuel  problem. 

B  108.   J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol.  XVI,  p.  420.     Comparison  of  gas-producers. 


282      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

1898. 
B  109.,  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  February  26th.     Illustration  and  description 

of  Kitson  gas-producer. 
B  110.    Electric  Review    (London),  November  llth.     Report  of  test  of  gas- 

producer   plant    in   Switzerland. 

B  111.    Engng.,  September  23d.     Description  of  Benier  gas-producer. 
B  112.   /.  C.  T.  R.,  January  21st.     Discussion  of  modern  types  of  gas-pro- 

ducers. 
B113.    N.  B.  M.  A.,  p.  161.     Brief  discussion  of  the  use  of  producer-gas  for 

burning  brick. 

B  114.    Nineteenth  Century,  July.     Discussion  of  future  fuel  supplies. 
B  115.   O  'Conner's  Gas  Engineer's  Pocket  Book,  p.  385.     Brief  discussion 

of  the  various  systems  of  gas-production. 

B  116.    Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels,  p.  92.     Discussion  of  gaseous  fuels. 
B  117.    Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXVIII,  p.  166.     Illustrated  description 

of  an  automatic  feed-device  for  gas-producers. 

1899. 
B  118.    Colliery  Guardian,  July  14th.     Economical  use  of  fuel;   shows  how 

economy  may  and  must  be  improved. 
B  119.   Electric  Review  (London),  July  28th.     Discussion  of   a  gas  engine 

with  30  per  cent  efficiency. 
B  120.   Gas  World,  September  9th.     Discussion  of  the  fuel  problem  of  the 

future. 
B  121.   Heat  and  Heat  Engines,  by  Button,  p.  60.     Discussion  of  producers 

and  producer-gas. 

B  122.   J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol  XVIII,  p.  646.     Discussion  of  gaseous  fuels. 
B  123.   Mineral  Industry,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  124.     Economical  utilization  of  fuel. 
B  124.    Proceedings  Cleveland  institution  of   Engineers   (England),   March 

16th.     Discussion   of  the   advantages   of  gas  engines  for  general 

power  purposes. 
B  125.   Thorp's  Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry,  p.  30.     Brief  discussion 

of  producer-gas. 


B  126.   Architectural   Pottery,   by  Leon   Lefevre,   English   translation   by 

Bird  and  Binns,  p.  231.     Discussion  of  the  use  of  gaseous  fuel  in 

continuous  kilns. 
B  127.   Brick,  November  1st.     Notes  on  the  use  of  producer-gas  in  burning 

brick. 
B  128.   Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Sept.  8th,  p.  281.     Describes  method  of  mak- 

ing gas  by  the  Riche  system. 
B  129.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  October  20th,  p.  460.     Description  and  illus- 

trations of  the  Riche  wood  gas-producers. 

B  130.   Eng.  Mag.,  October.     Discussion  of  the  coal  supply  of  the  U.S. 
B  131.   Engng.,  Vol.  LXX,  p.  169.     Brief  description  of  the  Siemens,  Gardie, 

Taylor,  Benier,  Kitson,  Loomis,  Wilson,  Longston,  Mond,  Beure- 

Lencauchez,  Dowson,  and  Pinkey  gas-producers,  the  last  named 

being  illustrated. 
B  132.   Engng.,  Vol.  LXX,  p.  202  and  203.     Considerable  tabulated  data 

are  given  with  regard  to  the  operation  of  gas-power  plants. 
B  133.   Engng.,  Vol.  LXX,  p.  244.     Valuable  tabulated  data  are  given  on 

cost  of  gas-producer  power  plants. 
B  134.   Engng.,  Vol.  LXX,  p.  399.     Description  and  illustrations  of  a  gas- 

producer  plant  in  Switzerland. 
B  135.   Engng.,  Vol.  LXX,  p.  526.     Description  and  illustrations  of  a  Fichet- 

Heurty  gas-producer  power  plant. 
B  136.   Engng.,  Vol.  LXX,  p.  589.     Description  with  several  illustrations  of 

a   Crossley   gas-producer   plant. 
B  137.   Engng.,  Vol.  LXX,  p.  654.     Description  and  illustrations  of  a  Kort- 

ing  gas-producer  plant. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  283 

B  138.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXX,  p.  811  and  845.  Extensive  discussion  of  the  use 
of  Mond  gas;  gives  several  illustrations. 

B  139.  Gas,  Oil  and  Air  Engines,  by  Byran  Donkin,  p.  158.  Extensive 
discussion  of  gas-production  for  motive  power. 

B  140.  Handbuch  der  Eisenhuttenkunde  by  Ledebur,  p.  100.  Thorough 
discussion  of  the  use  of  producer-gas,  with  illustrations  of  pro- 
ducers. 

B  141.  7.  C.  T.  R.,  July  20th.  Discusses  extent  of  coal  fields  at  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century. 

B  142.  Trans.  A.  C.  S.,  p.  38.  Notes  on  the  use  of  producer-gas  in  burning 
brick. 

1901. 

B  143.  Dawsqn's  Engineering  and  Electric  Traction  Book,  p.  829.  Dis- 
cussion of  the  manufacture  of  producer-gas,  with  several  illus- 
trations of  producer  plants;  also  general  data  on  scrubbers,  gas 
holders,  flame  temperatures,  and  operating  costs. 

B  144.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXI,  p.  41.  Detailed  description  and  illustration  of 
the  Duff  by-product  gas-producer  plant. 

B  145.    Eng.  Lond.,  Vol.  XCI,  p.  287.     Applications  of  Mond  gas. 

B  146.  Gluckauf,  May  llth.  Description  of  power  plant  using  lignites  in 
producer. 

B  147.  Gasmt.,  Vol.  I,  p.  106.  Illustration  and  brief  description  of  a  suc- 
tion gas-producer  plant. 

B  148.  Iron  Age,  September  12th,  p.  8.  Report  on  the  efficiency  test  of  a 
gas-producer  plant  for  heating  furnaces. 

B  149.  J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol.  XX,  p.  879.  Brief  description  with  illustration  of 
gas-washer. 

B  150.  Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book,  p.  646.  Discusses  fuel 
gas. 

B  151.  Mem.  Soc.  Ing.  Civ.,  France,  September.  Discusses  the  action  of 
various  types  of  gas-producers. 

B  152.    Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  58.     Discussion  of  gas  power. 

B  153.  Prevention  of  Smoke,  by  W.  C.  Popplewell,  p.  91.  Brief  discussion 
of  gaseous  fuel. 

B  154.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CXLIV,  p.  269.  General  discussion  of  producer- 
gas  plants. 

B  155.   Proc.  I.  M.  E.,  p.  41  and  247.      Extensive  discussion  of  Mond  gas. 

B  156.  Stahl  und  Eisen,  June  15th.  Discussion  of  the  use  of  lignites  for 
making  producer-gas. 

B  157.  Treatise  on  Ceramic  Industries,  by  Emile  Bourry,  English  transla- 
tion by  W.  P.  Rix,  p.  336.  Discussion  of  firing  kilns  with  pro- 
ducer-gas. 

1902. 

B  158.  Cassier's,  May,  p.  48.  Description  of  some  representative  gas-pro- 
ducer power  plants  for  mining  work. 

B  159.  Cassier's,  August,  p.  500.  General  description  of  the  method  of 
making  producer-gas. 

B  160.  Collected  Writings  of  H.  A.  Seger,  edited  by  A.  V.  Bleininger,  Vol.  I, 
p.  316.  Discussion  of  gas-fired  kilns. 

B  161.  Eisenhuttenkunde,  by  Wedding,  Vol.  II,  p.  795.  Brief  discussion 
of  producer-gas. 

B  162.  Eng.  Lond.,  Vol.  XCIV,  November  21st,  p.  494.  Description  and 
illustration  of  Mond  gas-producer. 

B  163  Gas  and  Petroleum  Engines,  by  Robinson,  p.  553.  Discussion  ot 
producer-gas. 

B  164.  Gasmt.,  Vol.  I,  p.  167.  Description  and  illustrations  ot  several  suc- 
tion gas-producers. 

B  165.  Gasmt.,  Vol.  I,  p.  188.  Illustration  and  description  of  the  Pmtscn 
patented  gas  regulator  for  suction  gas-producers. 


284     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

B  166.  Gasmt.,  Vol.  II,  p.  97  and  121.  Extensive  discussion  of  the  scrub- 
bing of  gases. 

B  167.   Gasmt.,  Vol.  II,  p.  119.     Discussion  of  gas-producer  power  plants. 

B  168.  Gas-Producer  Catalogue  of  the  R.  D.  Wood  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  catalogues  issued  on  the  subject  of  gas- 
producers  up  to  1902;  gives  valuable  data. 

B  169.  Gas  World,  September  27th,  p.  485.  Description  and  illustration  of 
Korting  gas-producer. 

B  170.  Genie  Civil,  April  25th.  Illustration  and  description  of  a  suction 
gas-producer. 

B  171.  Iron  Age,  March  6th,  p.  18.  Discussion  of  steam  blowers  for  gas- 
producers. 

B  172.  J.  S.  C.  I.,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  79.  Brief  discussion  of  the  efficiency  of  a 
Wilson  producer. 

B  173.   I.C.  T.  R.,  October  17th.     Gas-power  station  with  Pintsch  producer. 

B  174.   Mem.  Soc%  Ing.  Civ.,  France,  June.     Discussion  of  power  gas. 

B  175.  Mineral  Industry,  Vol.  X,  p.  167.  Discusses  the  progress  made  in 
recent  years. 

B  176.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XXV,  p.  440,  471,  487,  511.  Extensive  discussion 
of  the  applications  of  producer-gas. 

B  177.  Stahl  und  Eisen,  Vol.  XXII,  p.  1208.  Discussion  of  the  use  of  brown 
coal  in  producers. 

B  178.  Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam  Engine,  by  Peabody,  p.  214.  Brief 
discussion  of  gas-producers. 

B  179.  Transactions  National  Electric  Light  Association,  May.  General 
discussion  of  the  advantages  of  gas  engines  for  central  station 
work;  gives  comparison  with  steam  plant. 

B  180.  Zeitschr.  d.  V.  D.  Ing.,  November  8th.  Discussion  of  producers  for 
engine  work.  1903 

B  181.  American  Gas-Light  Journal,  March  30th.  Gas  for  industrial  pur- 
poses. 

B  182.  Braunkohle,  p.  358  and  373.  Discussion  of  the  use  of  brown  coal  in 
producers. 

B  183.  Bulletin  de  la  Societe"  de  1'Industrie  Minerale,  p.  889.  Description 
of  an  experimental  reversed  combustion  gas-producer,  designed 
to  work  on  fuels  of  low  calorific  value. 

B  184.  Das  Entwerfen  und  Berechnen  der  Verbrennungsmotoeren,  by  H. 
Giildner,  p.  358.  Illustrations  and  description  of  several  German 
producers. 

B  185.  Eng.  Lond.,  December  llth,  Vol.  XCVI,  p.  578.  Description  and 
illustrations  of  the  Crossley  gas-producers. 

B  186.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXV,  June  5th,  p.  761.  Description  and  illustration 
of  Taylor  suction  gas-producer. 

B  187.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXVI,  September  25th,  p.  420.  Description  and 
excellent  illustrations  of  a  Pierson  gas-producer  plant. 

B  188.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXVI,  October  2d,  p.  474.  Description  and  illus- 
tration of  Talbot  mechanical  gas-producer. 

B  189.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXVI,  November  20th,  p.  696.  Drawing  and  descrip- 
tion of  Pierson  gas-producer. 

B  190.  Evaporating,  Condensing,  and  Cooling  Apparatus,  by  E.  Hausbrand, 
translated  by  A.  C.  Wright.  Numerous  references  to  the  cooling 
and  condensing  of  gases. 

B  191.   Gas  World,  April.     Cheap  gas  for  motive  power. 

B  192.   I.  C.  T.  R.,  April  24th.     Discussion  of  gas  power. 

B  193.  /.  C.  T.  R.,  Vol.  LXVI,  p.  1644.  Illustration  and  description  of 
Duff  producers  and  ammonia  recovery  plant. 

B  194.  Iron,  Steel,  and  Other  Alloys,  by  H.  M.  Howe,  p.  407.  Discussion 
of  metallurgical  furnaces  with  special  reference  to  gas  regenera- 
tion. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  285 

B  195.   J.  I.  and  S.  I.,  Vol.  II,  p.  582.     Abstract  of  B  214. 

B  196.    J.  I.  and  S.  I.,  Vol.  II,  p.  584.     Abstract  of  article  in  B  215 

B  197.  Jour.  Assn.  Eng.  Soc.,  October,  Vol.  XXXI,  p.  89.  Description  and 
illustration  of  the  methods  of  making  coal  and  water  gas,  with 
illustrations  of  gas  meters. 

B  198.  Machinery  (Engineering  Edition),  March  3d,  p.  353.  Brief  descrip- 
tion and  three  illustrations  of  gas-producers. 

B  199.  Materials  of  Machines,  by  Smith,  p.  14.  Brief  description  of  the 
producer-gas  process. 

B  200.  Mechanical  Engineer,  April  4th.  Discussion  of  the  production  of 
power  by  means  of  gas-producers  and  gas  engines. 

B  201.  Monograph  on  Mond  Gas,  by  The  R.  D.  Wood  Co.  Contains  consider- 
able data  and  illustrations  of  general  interest  to  the  gas-producer 
industry. 

B  202.   Power,  April,  p.  178.     Illustration  of  suction  producer. 

B  203.  Power,  April,  p.  181.  Producer-gas  and  gas  engines.  Illustration 
and  description  of  Mond  and  Loomis  producers. 

B  204.  Power,  September,  p.  512.  Brief  description,  with  illustration,  of  a 
suction  gas-producer. 

B  205.   Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XXVII,  p.  345.     Brief  discussion  of  gas-producers. 

B  206.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XXVIII,  p.  7.  Illustrations  and  descriptions  of 
recent  forms  of  gas-producers. 

B  207.  Proc.  Eng.  Soc.  of  W.  Pa.,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  195.  Extensive  discussion 
of  gas  for  power  purposes. 

B  208.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CLIV,  p.  430.  Abstract  of  article  on  a  power 
gas  plant  in  Switzerland;  gives  summary  of  results  obtained. 

B  209.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CLVI,  p.  483.  Abstract  of  article  giving  the  sum- 
mary of  the  results  obtained  in  testing  a  suction  gas-producer 
plant. 

B  210.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CLVI,  p.  489.  Abstract  of  article  describing  a 
reversed  combustion  gas-producer. 

B  211.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CLVI,  p.  578.  Abstract  of  a  description  of  a  new 
gas-producer  plant. 

B  212.  Progressive  Age,  January  15th,  p.  33.  Description  and  illustrations 
of  suction  gas-producers  for  gas  engines. 

B  213.  Schweiz  Bauzeitung,  February  28th  and  March  7th.  Description 
of  a  complete  gas-power  house. 

B  214.  Stahl  und  Eisen,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  433-441,  515,  and  528.  Elaborate 
discussion  of  the  thermal  reactions  in  the  gas-producer  and  the 
action  of  the  blast  in  detail. 

B  215.  Stahl  und  Eisen,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  695.  Discussion  of  the  changes  that 
take  place  in  the  composition  of  producer-gas  between  the  pro- 
ducer and  the  furnace. 

B  216.   Stevens  Indicator,  January.     The  blast  furnace  as  a  power  plant. 

B  217.  Teknisk  Tidsckrift,  Allmanna  Afedlningen,  Vol.  XXXIII,  p.  53. 
Discussion  of  the  relative  merits  of  various  gas-producers  for  use 
in  iron  works. 

B  218.  The  Gas  Engine,  by  Hutton,  p.  41.  Brief  discussion  of  gas-producers, 
with  several  illustrations. 

B  219.  Transactions  of  the  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers'  Society,  Volume 
for  1902-1903,  p.  53-68.  Discussion  of  the  advantages  of  the 
gas-producer  as  a  power  generator. 

B  220.  Zeitschr.  d.  V.  D.  Ing.,  p.  157.  Gives  results  of  a  suction  gas-pro- 
ducer test;  abstract  of  this  is  given  in  B  209. 

1904. 

B  221.  Cassier's,  October.  Extensive  and  detailed  discussion  of  fuel  gas 
for  gas  engines;  several  illustrations  given. 

B  222.  Cosmopolitan,  December,  p.  169.  Brief  discussion  of  the  adapta- 
bility of  gas-producers  for  marine  work. 


286     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

B  223.  Electric  Club  Journal,  Vol.  I,  March,  p.  65.  Lecture  on  gas-power 
plants. 

B  224.  Electrical  World  and  Engineer,  November  19th.  Gives  figures  taken 
from  a  number  of  plants,  indicating  marked  economies  in  the  use 
of  producer-gas  and  gas  engines  instead  of  steam. 

B  225.  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  December  8.  Section  and  description  of  the 
Wile  gas-producer. 

B  226.  Eng.  Lond.,  Vol.  XCVII,  March  15th,  p.  311.  Brief  description  of  a 
German  producer-gas  plant  that  uses  brown  coal  briquettes  for 
fuel. 

B  227.  Eng.  Land.,  Vol.  XCVII,  April  8th,  p.  370.  Description  and  illus- 
tration of  a  Duff  producer-gas  plant  using  soft  coal. 

B  228.  Eng.  Lond.,  Vol.  XCVIII,  August  12th,  p.  151.  Description  and 
illustration  of  a  Crossley  gas-producer  plant. 

B  229.  Eng.  Lond.,  Vol.  XCVIII,  November  4th,  p.  450.  Description  and 
illustration,  with  summary  of  test,  of  a  Pierson  suction  gas-pro- 
ducer. 

B  230.  Eng.  News,  August  4th,  p.  96.  Description  of  the  producer-gas 
and  gas-engine  plant  of  the  Moctezuma  Copper  Company  at  Naco- 
zari,  Sonora,  Mexico.  Abstract  of  B  281. 

B  231.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXVIII,  August  26th,  p.  285.  Description  of  the 
testing  of  a  Pierson  suction  gas-producer. 

B  232.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXVIII,  September  2d,  p.  295.  Description  and 
illustration  of  a  Mond  gas  plant. 

B  233.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXVIII,  October  21st,  p.  540.  Description  and  illus- 
tration of  a  gas-producer  designed  to  work  on  bituminous  coal. 

B  234.  Engng.,  Vol.  LXXVIII,  November  18th,  p.  692.  Brief  discussion 
of  bituminous  coal-gas  production. 

B  235.  Engr.,  February  1st,  p.  106,  and  March  1st,  p.  177.  Discussion  of 
gas  power  for  central  stations. 

B  236.  Engr.,  June  15th,  p.  416.  Description  and  illustration  of  the  Otto 
producer. 

B  237.  Engr.,  July  1st,  p.  450.  Description  and  illustration  of  the  Bollinckx 
suction  gas-producer. 

B  238.  Engr.,  October  15th,  p.  717.  Description  and  illustration  of  the 
Weber  suction  gas-producer. 

B  239.  Engr.,  December  15th,  p.  821.  Illustration  and  description  of  pro- 
ducer-gas power  plant. 

B  240.  Eng.  Rec.,  Vol.  L,  October  1st,  p.  406.  Brief  reference  to  the  economy 
of  an  English  gas-producer  plant. 

B  241.  Eng.  Rec.,  Vol.  L,  December  3d,  p.  654.  Description  and  illustration 
of  a  gas-producer  plant. 


B  242.  Gasmt.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  10  and  27.  Discussion  of  the  theory  of  the  com- 
bustion of  carbon  in  the  gas-producer. 

B  243.  Gasmt.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  33.  Detailed  discussion  of  the  manufacture  of 
producer-gas. 

B  244.  Gasmt.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  79  and  85.  Discussion  of  the  purification  of  gas; 
gives  several  illustrations. 

B  245.  Gasmt.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  107.  Description  and  illustration  of  the  Thesian 
centrifugal  gas  washer. 

B  246.   Gas  Power,  October,  p    3.     Brief  discussion  of  gas-producers. 

B  247.  Gas  Power,  November,  p.  3.  Suggestions  for  a  marine-engine  pro- 
ducer. 

B  248.  Gas  Power,  November,  p.  4.  Illustrations  and  descriptions  of  the 
Weber,  Dunlop,  Crossley,  Bollinckx,  and  Nagel  producers. 

B  249.  Gas  Power,  December,  p.  16.  Discussion  of  the  advantages  of  gas- 
engine  power  plants. 

B  250.  Iron  Age,  August  18th.  Description  and  illustration  of  the  Thesian 
centrifugal  gas  washers. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  287 

B  251.  Iron  Age,  December  29th.  Description  and  illustration  of  a  modern 
gas-producer  plant. 

B  252.  /.  C.  T.  R.,  Vol.  LXVII,  p.  1559.  Description  and  illustration  of 
Mond  gas  plant. 

B  253.  I.  C,  T.  R.,  Vol.  LXVIII,  p.  679.  Gives  comparison  of  the  cost  of 
power  with  water  gas,  Mond  gas,  coal  gas  and  electricity. 

B  254.  Journal  of  Electricity,  December.  Illustration  and  description  of  a 
gas-producer  power  plant  equipped  with  a  Pierson  producer  of 
special  design. 

B  255.  Les  Gazogenes,  by  Jules  Deschamps.  This  book  is  divided  into 
15  chapters,  contains  432  pages  with  240  figures,  and  gives  a  com- 
prehensive discussion  of  the  manufacture  and  use  of  producer-gas. 

B  256.  Mar.  Eng.,  October.  Description  and  illustration  of  a  suction  gas- 
producer  installed  on  a  ship. 

B  257.  Modern  Gas-Engine  and  Producer-Gas  Plants,  by  R.  E.  Mathot, 
chapters  10-13.  Extensive  discussion  of  producer-gas  engines, 
producer-gas,  pressure  gas-producers,  suction  producers,  genera- 
tors, vaporizers,  dust  collectors,  and  the  operation  of  generators. 

B  258.  Oesterreichische  Zeitschrift  fuer  Berg  und  huettenwesen,  September 
24th.  Discussion  and  description  of  the  methods  used  in  success- 
fully gasifying  peat,  where  the  gas  is  to  be  used  in  gas  engines. 

B  259.  Power,  January,  p.  1.  Discussion  of  the  "blast  furnace  as  a  gas- 
producer";  describes  plant  and  apparatus  used  in  cleaning  the  gas. 

B  260.  Power,  January,  p.  50.  Brief  discussion  of  the  "blast  furnace  as  a 
gas-producer." 

B  261.  Power,  February,  p.  72.  Description  and  illustration  of  the  Crossley 
gas-producer  for  .bituminous  coal. 

B  262.  Power,  February,  p.  100.  Comprehensive  and  illustrated  discussion 
of  gas  power  for  central  stations. 

B  263.  Power,  April,  p.  201.  Brief  description  of  a  power  plant  where 
wood  is  used  in  the  gas-producers. 

B  264.  Power,  June,  p.  362.  Illustration  and  description  of  the  Bollinckx 
suction  gas-producer. 

B  265.  Power,  July,  p.  425.  Illustration  and  brief  description  of  the  Thwaite 
gas-producer  for  bituminous  coal. 

B  266.  Power,  August,  p.  457.  Illustration  and  brief  description  of  a  gas- 
producer  used  as  a  superheater. 

B  267.  Power,  September,  p.  520.  Description  and  illustrations  of  several 
gas-producers;  gives  summary  of  costs. 

B  268.  Power,  September,  p.  560.  Brief  discussion  of  gas-producer  guaran- 
tees. 

B  269.  Power,  October,  p.  632.  Description  and  illustration  of  the  Thesian 
centrifugal  gas  washer. 

B  270.  Power,  November,  p.  696.  Brief  discussion  of  the  transmission  of 
producer-gas. 

B  271.  Power,  December,  p.  736.  Description  and  illustrations  of  suction 
gas-producers;  thorough  discussion  of  details. 

B  272.  Power,  December,  p.  789.  Description  and  illustration  of  the  Wile 
gas-producer. 

B  273.  Power,  December,  p.  752.  Summary  of  comparative  economies  of 
steam  and  gas  plants. 

B  274.  Proceedings  of  the  South  African  Association  of  Engineers,  Vol.  I, 
p.  131.  Discussion  of  the  evolution  of  the  modern  gas-power  plant. 

B  275.  Producer-Gas,  by  Sexton.  Extensive  discussion  of  the  physics  and 
chemistry  of  the  gas-producer. 

B  276.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CLVIII,  p;  309.  Brief  discussion  of  the  value  of 
gas-producers. 

B  277.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CLVIII,  p.  320.  Description  of  methods  used 
in  testing  gas-producers,  giving  summary  of  efficiency,  gas  analysis, 
and  water  consumption. 


288      A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

B  278.  Proc.  I.  C.  E.,  Vol.  CLV,  p.  472.  Abstract  of  article  on  gas-producer 
plants  for  heating. 

B  279.  Sci.  Am.  Sup.,  September  3d.  Illustration  and  description  of  a 
Pierson  gas-generating  system. 

B  280.  Suction  Gas,  by  O.  H.  Haenssgen.  A  monograph  devoted  to  the 
advantages  of  the  suction  gas-producer. 

B  281.  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXXIV,  p.  748.  The  gas-power  plant  of 
the  Moctezuma  Copper  Co.  at  Nacozari,  Sonora,  Mexico.  Paper 
containing  excellent  illustrations  and  much  valuable  statistical 
data  of  actual  working  results. 

B  282.  Zeitschr.  d.  V.  D.  Ing.,  October  29th,  p.  1656.  Discussion  of  the 
principles  involved  in  making  power-gas,  with  a  summary  of  the 
cost  of  the  various  forms  of  fuel  gas. 

B  283.  Zeitschr.  d.  V.  D.  Ing.,  November  26th,  p.  1793.  Extensive  discussion 
of  the  results  obtained  with  a  gas-producer  designed  for  experi- 
mental work.  Gives  valuable  tables  and  diagrams. 

1905. 

B  284.  American  Engineer  and  Ry.  Journal,  April,  p.  124.  Description  and 
illustration  of  gas-producer  power  plant. 

B  285.  Bulletin  No.  261,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  p.  85.  Results  of  gas- 
producer  tests  with  different  fuels;  give's  much  tabulated  data. 

B  286.  Eng.  Mag.,  May,  p.  185.  Discussion  with  illustrations  of  the  design 
and  operation  of  suction  gas-producers. 

B  287.  Eng.  Mag.,  May,  p.  211.  Report  of  test  of  a  gas-producer  plant; 
abstract  of  B  285. 

B  288.  Eng.  Mag.,  June,  p.  347.  Extensive  and  illustrated  discussion  of 
gas-producers  for  marine  work. 

B  289.  Eng.  News,  Vol.  LIII,  January  19th,  p.  78.  Brief  description  of  a 
Pintsch  suction  gas-producer. 

B  290.  Eng.  News,  Vol.  LIII,  February  16th,  p.  161.  Illustration  and 
description  of  Pinstch  suction  producer. 

B  291.  Engng.,  March  17th,  p.  352.  Brief  discussion  of  the  cost  of  gas 
power. 

B  292.   Engng.,  March  24th,  p.  381.     Brief  discussion  of  suction  gas  plants. 

B  293.  Engr.,  January  1st,  p.  18.  Extensive  and  detailed  discussion  of 
gas-producer  systems;  contains  illustrations  of  the  American, 
Baltimore,  Nagel,  Weber,  Wile,  and  Taylor  producers. 

B  294.  Engr.,  January  1st,  p.  27.  Description  and  illustration  of  Crossley 
suction  gas-producer. 

B  295.  Engr.,  January  16th,  p.  89.  Description,  with  illustration,  of  the 
Fetu  De  Fize  gas-producer. 

B  296.  Engr.,  February  1st,  p.  104.  Illustration,  with  brief  description, 
of  a  Mond  gas-producer  plant. 

B  297.  Engr.,  February  1st,  p.  107.  Illustration  and  description  of  the 
Campbell  suction  gas-producer. 

B  298.  Engr.,  February  15th,  p.  137.  Description  and  illustration  of  the 
LeTombe  gas-producer. 

B  299.   Eng.  Rec.,  Vol.  LI,  January  21st,  p.  89.     Same  as  B  289. 

B  300.  Eng.  Rec.,  May  27th,  p.  601.  Extensive  discussion  of  the  gas-clean- 
ing methods. 

B  301.  Eng.  Land.,  March  31st,  p.  308.  Discussion  of  the  theory  and  opera- 
tion of  suction  gas-producers. 

B  302.  Eng.  Land.,  April  14th,  p.  360.  Description  and  illustrations  of  the 
Baltimore,  Benier  Benz,  Campbell,  Crossley,  Dawson,  and  Korting 
suction  gas-producers. 

B  303.  Eng.  Lond.,  April  28th,  p.  420.  Illustration  and  description  of 
Acme,  Dynamic,  Pintsch,  Pierson,  and  Tangye  producers. 

B  304.  Gas  Engine,  January.  Brief  description  with  illustration  of  the 
Wile  producer. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  GAS-PRODUCERS.  289 

B  305.    Gas  Engine,  January,  p.  3.     Brief  discussion  of  the  gasification  of  peat. 

B  306.   Gas  Engine,  February,  p.  39.     Brief  discussion  of  gas  for  power. 

B  307.  Gas  Engine,  March,  p.  70.  Brief  discussion  of  the  manufacture  of 
gas  from  vegetable  products  for  power  purposes. 

B  308.  Gas  Engine,  March,  p.  94.  Discussion  of  gas-driven  locomotives 
and  ships. 

B  309.  Gas  Engine,  April,  p.  110.  Description  and  illustration  of  the  Fair- 
banks-Morse suction  gas-producer. 

B  310.  Gas  Engine,  May,  p.  136.  Discussion  of  power  production  from 
gaseous  fuel. 

B  311.   Gas  Engine,  June,  p.  165.     Description  of  a  coke  gas-producer. 

B  312.    Gas  Engine,  June,  p.  175.     Discussion  of  power  gas. 

B  313.    Gas  Engine,  June,  p.  178.     Discussion  of  producer-gas  units. 

B  314.  Gas  Power,  January,  .p.  3.  Illustration  and  brief  description  of  the 
Pintsch  suction  producer. 

B  315.  Gas  Power,  January,  p.  5.  Illustration  and  description  of  the  West- 
inghouse  producer  for  soft  coal. 

B  316.  Gas  Power,  February,  p.  6.  Brief  description  of  the  Baltimore  gas- 
producer. 

B  317.  Gas-Producers,  by  W.  A.  Tookey.  British  book  of  142  pages,  devoted 
to  the  production  of  gas  and  descriptions  of  representative  gas- 
producers. 

B  318.  Ice  and  Refrigeration,  May,  p.  277.  Discussion  of  producer-gas  for 
power  purposes. 

B  319.  I.  C.  T.  R.,  April  14th.  Discussion  of  the  principle  and  requirements 
of  gas-producers. 

B  320.   Iron  Age,  February,  p.  674.     Illustrated  description  of  the  Swindell 
gas-producer. 

B  321.  Iron  S.  M.,  January,  p.  64.  Description  and  illustration  of  the 
Amsler  gas-producer. 

B  322.  Iron  S.  M.,  February,  p.  177.  Illustrated  description  of  a  gas-pro- 
ducer plant. 

B  323.  Journal  American  Society  Naval  Engineers,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  319. 
Discusses  future  of  marine  gas  engine  and  gas-producer. 

B  324.  London  Electrician,  April  7th.  Discussion  of  the  principal  forms 
of  gas-producers  with  special  reference  to  the  suction  type. 

B  325.  Mining  Reporter,  March  9th.  Discussion  and  illustration  of  a  Riche 
gas-producer  for  the  gasification  of  waste  wood,  ligneous  matter, 
and  agriculture  residues. 

B  326.  Power,  January,  p.  14.  Brief  discussion  of  the  use  of  peat  as  a  gas- 
producer  fuel. 

B  327.  Power,  March,  p.  129.  Illustrations  and  description  of  the  method 
of  manufacture,  and  use  of  coke-oven  gas  in  gas  engines. 

B  328.  Power,  March,  p.  178.  Brief  editorial  on  the  gasification  of  city 
waste. 

B  329.  Power,  April,  p.  212.  Description  and  illustration  of  a  gas-power 
plant. 

B  330.  Power,  May,  p.  261.  Illustrated  description  of  the  Riche  gas-pro- 
ducer. 

B  331.  Power,  May,  p.  273.  Description  and  illustration  of  a  gas-producer 
power  plant. 

B  332.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XXXI,  p.  203.  Description  and  illustration  of  a 
suction  gas-producer  installed  on  a  ship. 

B  333.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XXXI,  p.  401.  Discussion  of  gas  as  a  source  of 
power. 

B  334.   Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XXXI,  p.  537.     Advantages  of  producer-gas  plants. 

B  335.  Prac.  Eng.,  Vol.  XXXI,  p.  597,  635,  676,  716,  794.  Extensive  and 
illustrated  discussion  of  power-gas  plants. 

B  336.  Progressive  Age,  April  15th.  Extensive  discussion  of  producer-gas 
with  special  reference  to  power  generation. 


290     A  TREATISE  ON  PRODUCER-GAS  AND  GAS-PRODUCERS. 

B  337.  Sci.  Am.,  February  4th,  p.  98.  Brief  discussion  of  gas-driven  loco- 
motives and  ships. 

B  338.  Sci.  Am.,  February  18th,  p.  139.  Brief  discussion  of  the  gas-pro- 
ducer, with  special  reference  to  power  plants. 

B  339.  Sci.  Am.,  March  4th,  p.  180.  Description  and  illustration  of  the 
Capitaine  suction  gas-producer  for  marine  work. 

B  340.  Sci.  Am.  Sup.,  January  28th.  Illustration  and  brief  description 
of  a  Pierson  producer-gas  plant. 

B  341.  Sci.  Am.  Sup.,  February  4th.  Illustration  and  discussion  of  gas- 
producers  for  locomotive  work. 

B  342.  Sci.  Am.  Sup.,  April  1st.  Illustrated  description  of  the  Pintsch 
suction  gas-producer. 

B  343.  Sci.  Am.  Sup.,  April  29th.  Illustrated  description  of  the  Nagel 
suction  gas-producer. 

B  344.   Sci.  Am.  Sup.,  June  3d.     Discussion  of  producer-gas  power  plants. 

B  345.  Stahl  und  Eisen,  Vol.  XXV,  March  1st,  p.  308.  Illustration  and 
brief  description  of  a  Swedish  gas-producer  for  gasifying  wood  and 
peat  in  connection  with  the  firing  of  steam  boilers. 

B  346.  Stahl  und  Eisen,  Vol.  XXV,  April  1st,  p.  387.  Illustrations  and 
discussion  of  the  use  of  gas-producers  in  iron  works. 

B  347.  Zeitschr.  d.  V.  D.  Ing.,  February  18th,  p.  233.  Extensive  discussion 
of  the  gasification  of  fuels  for  the  production  of  power;  gives  graphi- 
cal analysis  of  the  thermo-chemical  reactions  involved. 

The  following  references  are  not  related  directly  to  gas-producers,  but  are 
quoted  in  the  text : 

B  348.   Fertilizers,  by  E.  B.  Voorhees,  p.  51. 

B  349.   Treatise  on  Manures,  by  A.  B.  Griffiths,  p.  187-8. 

B  350.    Manures  and  the  Principles  of  Manuring,  by  C.  M.  Aikman,  p.  355. 

B  351.  Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  1116.  Re- 
port of  committee  on  standard  methods  of  testing  fuels. 

B  352.  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXV,  p.  550.  Road  tests  of  freight  loco- 
motives. 

B  353.  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXVI.  Road  tests  of  Brooks  passenger 
locomotives. 

B  354.   Ohio  State  Fire  Marshal's  report. 

B  355.  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXVI.  Paper  on  fuel  consumption  of 
locomotives. 


APPENDIX 


NOTE  1. 

Temperature  is  analogous  to  pressure  of  gases.  The  degree  of  tem- 
perature is  measured  by  means  of  temperature  scales,  of  which  there 
are  two,  viz.,  the  Centigrade  and  the  Fahrenheit.  The  Centigrade  has 
the  freezing  point  of  water  at  zero,  and  the  boiling  point  of  water  at 
100;  the  Fahrenheit  has  the  freezing  point  of  water  at  32  and  the  boiling 
point  of  water  at  212.  Let  C.  =  degrees  Centigrade;  let  F.  =  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  and  F.  =  f  C.  +  32;  C.  =  f  (F.  -  32). 

Absolute  Zero  is  the  point  where  the  volume  of  the  gas,  following 
Charles'  law,  §  12,  would  become  zero.  On  the  Centigrade  scale  it  is 
273  degrees  below  freezing,  and  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale  491  degrees 
below  freezing.  The  absolute  zero  is  a  convenient  point  from  which  to 
calculate  temperatures  and  for  that  reason  it  is  of  considerable  practical 
value. 

Absolute  temperature  is  temperature  reckoned  from  absolute  zero. 
Let  A.  =  absolute  temperature;  let  C.  =  Centigrade  temperature;  F.  = 
Fahrenheit  temperature.  A.  =  C.  +  273;  A.  =  f  (F.  -  32)  +  273. 
A.  =  F.  +  459. 

NOTE  2. 

The  specific  heat  of  nearly  all  gases  increases  with  the  temperature 
and  for  that  reason  the  specific  heats  corresponding  to  ordinary  tem- 
peratures are  not  accurate  for  high  temperatures.  The  specific  heats 
given  in  columns  "I"  and  "J"  of  Table  3  are  not  accurate  enough  for 
dose  calculations  at  high  temperatures,  and  for  that  reason,  in  calcu- 
lating the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  gas  from  standard  conditions 
to  any  higher  temperature,  the  mean  specific  heats  must  be  used.  The 
mean  specific  heats  for  the  gases  entering  into  fuel  calculations  are  given 
in  Table  23,  p.  301. 

Sensible  Heat.  This  is  the  heat  possessed  by  a  body  by  virtue  of  its 
temperature.  It  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  specific  heat  per  unit 
of  mass  and  the  temperature  of  the  body.  If  the  substance  is  stated  in 
terms  of  volume,  then,  of  course,  the  specific  heat  must  also  be  stated 
in  terms  of  volume:  for  the  calculation  of  the  sensible  heat  of  producer- 
gas.  See  §  63,  p.  42. 

291 


292  APPENDIX 

NOTE  3. 

Calorific  Power.  This  term  is  used  to  designate  the  number  of  heat 
units  that  are  evolved  by  the  combustion  of  a  unit  weight  of  fuel.  The 
terms  " heating  power,"  "heating  value/'  "thermal  value,"  and  "heat 
of  combustion  "  are  frequently  applied  to  the  same  phenomena. 

NOTE  4. 

Latent  Heat  of  Evaporation.  The  latent  heat  of  evaporation  of  a 
body  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  change  the  body  from  a  liquid 
state  to  a  vapor,  without  change  of  temperature.  The  latent  heat  of 
water  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale  is  equal  to  966  B.  t.  u.  per  pound,  and  on 
the  Centigrade  scale  to  537  calories  per  kilogram.  In  both  cases  the 
temperature  is  that  of  the  normal  boiling  point  at  atmospheric  pressure. 

NOTE  5. 

The  flow  of  a  gas  is,  of  course,  influenced  by  the  pressure.  Gas 
pressures  are  stated  in  inches  of  water,  inches  of  mercury,  ounces  per 
square  inch,  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  pounds  per  square  foot.  The 
pressure  used  in  the  average  gas  main  being  low,  the  ordinary  U-tube 
filled  with  water  is  used  extensively  for  measuring  the  pressure,  the 
value  of  the  pressure  being  stated  as  so  many  inches  of  water.  For  the 
relation  of  the  different  units  used  for  expressing  gas  pressure,  see  Table 
24. 

NOTE  6. 

Laws  of  Chemical  Reactions. 

1.  All  atomic  and  molecular  weights  are  relative. 

2.  The   densities  of  all  gases  are  proportional  to  their  molecular 
weights. 

3.  "The  relative  number  of  molecules  of  a  gaseous  substance  con- 
cerned in  a  reaction  stands  for  the  relative  volume  of  the  gas  concerned 
in  the  reaction." 

4.  "The  relative  volumes  of  all  gases  taking  part  in  the  reaction  are 
derived  simply  from  the  number  of  molecules  of  each  gas  concerned. " 

5.  If  the  relative  weights  in  an  equation  representing  a  certain  reac- 
tion are  called  ounces  avoirdupois,  each  molecule  of  the  gas  represented 
by  the  equation  will  represent  22.22  cubic  feet.     If  the  relative  weights 
are  called  kilograms,  then  each  molecule  of  the  gas  represented  by  the 
equation  will  represent  22.22  cubic  meters. 

6.  "The  densities  of  all  gases  are  found  experimentally  to  be  pro- 
portional to  their  molecular  weights." 

7.  "The  density  of  any  gas  referred  to  hydrogen  is  expressed  numer- 


APPENDIX  293 

ically  by  one-half  its  molecular  weight."    This  property  may  be  seen 
by  referring  to  columns  "D"  and  "E"  of  Table  3. 

NOTE  7. 

Weights  and  Volumes  in  Chemical  Reactions.  By  means  of  the  appli- 
cation of  the  laws  given  in  Note  6,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  determine 
the  exact  weights  or  the  exact  volumes  of  the  different  substances  rep- 
resented by  a  chemical  equation.  An  ordinary  case  which  takes  place 
in  the  gas-producer  may  be  illustrated  by  the  equation  for  the  production 
of  water  gas. 

I  I          I 

Molecules C  +  H2O  -  CO  +  H2 

Relative  weights 12  +  18  =  28  +  2 

By  this  equation,  12  ounces  or  kilograms  of  carbon  and  18  of  water 
produce  28  of  carbon  monoxide  and  2  of  hydrogen.  A  cubic  meter  of 
hydrogen  at  standard  conditions  weighs  approximately  .09  kilograms, 
hence  two  kilograms  will  have  a  volume  of  2  -5-  .09  =  22.22  cubic  meters. 
Richards*  has  already  noted  that  the  relation  between  the  ounce  avoir- 
dupois and  the  kilogram  is  the  same  as  between  the  cubic  foot  and  cubic 
meter,  hence  the  same  value  that  is  used  to  represent  cubic  meters  may 
be  used  to  represent  cubic  feet,  when  the  weights  are  taken  in  ounces 
in  place  of  kilograms.  In  other  words,  from  the  preceding,  twelve  kilo- 
grams of  carbon  uniting  with  22.22  cubic  meters  of  water  vapor  produce 
22. 22  cubic  meters  of  carbon  monoxide  and  22. 22  cubic  meters  of  hydrogen, 
or  12  ounces  of  carbon  uniting  with  22.22  cubic  feet  of  water  vapor 
produce  22.22  cubic  feet  of  carbon  monoxide  and  22.22  cubic  feet  of 
hydrogen.  This  same  line  of  reasoning  may  be  applied  to  any  chemical 
equation  with  the  same  results. 

NOTE  8. 

Calorific  Intensity.  The  calorific  intensity  of  a  fuel  is  the  theoretical 
maximum  temperature  that  may  be  obtained  by  burning  the  fuel  under 
any  given  conditions.  It  is  not  proportional  to  the  calorific  power,  and 
it  will  vary  with  the  conditions  under  which  combustion  takes  place. 

The  combustion  of  a  fuel  necessitates  the  raising  of  all  the  combustion 
products  to  a  certain  temperature.  The  quantity  of  heat  in  the  products 
of  combustion  from  a  unit  of  fuel  is  the  same  as  the  calorific  power  of 
the  fuel.  Since  the  product  of  the  temperature  and  mean  specific  heat 
of  the  combustion  products  gives  the  quantity  of  heat  in  the  combustion 
products,  we  have  the  following  equality: 

*  Metallurgical  Calculations,  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Richards. 


294  APPENDIX 

Let    C  =  calorific  power. 

A  and  B  =  constants. 

Af  =  mean  specific  heat  of  combustion  products. 

t  =  temperature,  or  calorific  intensity. 

Q  =  quantity  of  heat  in  combustion  products. 

Mt  =C. 

By  reference  to  Table  23  we  see  that  t  is  already  a  function  of  the 
mean  specific  heat  and  that  the  general  expression  for  M  will  be 

A  +  Bt  =  M. 

For  instance,  the  Af  of  a  cubic  meter  of  H  would  be  .303  +  .000027^; 
the  .303  corresponding  to  A  and  the  .000027  to  B. 

Also  Q  =  Mt  =  At  +  Bt2 

but  Q  =  C 

hence  At  +  Bt2  =  C,  and  Bt2  +  At  -  C  =  0 

The  only  unknown  will  be  t  and  this  may  be  solved  as  an  affected  quad- 
ratic equation. 

4/4A2X  BC-A 
=  V  "          2B 

Flame  temperature  is  discussed  in  Note  9. 

NOTE  9. 

Flame  Temperature.  If  either  the  fuel  or  air  for  combustion  is  pre- 
heated, the  sensible  heat  produced  by  such  pre-heating  is  added  to  the 
heat  of  combustion.  In  other  words,  if  1000  heat  units  are  brought 
into  the  combustion  chamber  as  sensible  heat,  the  effect  in  the  com- 
bustion chamber  will  be  the  same  as  if  the  calorific  power  of  the  fuel 
was  1000  heat  units  higher. 

If  the  fuel  is  burned  with  an  air  excess  the  amount  of  heat  available 
from  the  combustion  will  be  reduced  by  an  amount  equal  to  that  re- 
quired to  heat  up  the  excess  of  air  to  the  temperature  of  the  combustion 
products. 

The  calculation  of  the  flame  temperature  available  with  any  fuel 
gas  and  under  any  given  conditions,  first  necessitates  the  determination 
of  the  weights  or  volumes  of  the  combustion  products;  the  method  of 
doing  this  is  given  in  §  61.  The  quantity  of  heat  represented  by  each 
combustion  constituent  will  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  Table  23,  p.  301, 
and  the  formula 

At  +  Bt2  =  quantity  of  heat. 

By  the  results  deduced  in  Note  8,  the  sum  of  the  aggregate  heat  quan- 


APPENDIX  295 

titles  represented  by  the  respective  combustion  products  will  be  equal 
to  the  calorific  power  of  the  fuel.  Since  t  and  t2  are  common  factors 
of  all  the  heat  quantities,  the  aggregate  sum  will  be  represented  by  the 
product  of  a  new  coefficient,  As,  (corresponding  to  A)  and  t  plus  the 
product  of  a  new  coefficient,  Bs  (corresponding  to  B)  and  t. 

Let  C     =  calorific  power  of  fuel. 

Cp  =  heat  carried  in  by  pre-heated  air  or  gas. 

For  perfect  combustion  with  cold  air  or  gas: 

Ast  +  Bst2  =  C. 

For  perfect  combustion  with  gas  or  air  pre-heated: 

Ast  =  C  +  Cp. 

If  the  gas  is  burned  with  an  air  excess,  then  the  quantity  of  such  excess 
must  be  reckoned  in  with  the  combustion  products,  as  explained  in 
a  61,  and  will  change  the  values  of  the  coefficients  As  and  Bs.  In  any 
of  the  above  conditions  the  only  unknown  will  be  t,  which  may  readily 
be  solved  as  explained  in  Note  8. 

NOTE  10. 

Gross  and  Net  Heating  Values.  In  calculating  the  heating  values 
given  in  columns  "Q"  and  "R"  of  Table  3,  the  results  are  based  on 
utilizing  the  latent  heat  of  evaporation  (Note  4,  p.  292)  when  the  water 
formed  by  the  combustion  of  the  hydrogen  is  condensed.  In  many 
cases,  notably  gas  engines,  the  steam  is  not  condensed  and  hence  the 
heat  generated  by  the  combustion  is  not  all  utilized.  The  combustion 
of  one  pound  of  hydrogen  produces  nine  pounds  of  steam,  which,  if  not 
condensed,  will  carry  away  at  atmospheric  pressure  the  latent  heat  of 
steam  corresponding  to  these  nine  pounds.  This  will  be  equal  to 
9  X  966  =  8694  B.  t,  u. ;  hence  the  heat  of  combustion  per  pound  of 
hydrogen,  where  the  products  of  combustion  leave  the  combustion 
chamber  at  a  temperature  high  enough  not  to  condense  the  water  vapor, 
is  62,100  -  8694  =  53,406  B.  t.  u.  per  pound.  The  62,100  is  known 
as  the  gross  heating  value,  and  the  53,406  is  known  as  the  net  heating 
value.  The  terms  "high"  and  "low"  are  also  used  synonymously  for 
gross  and  net  heating  values,  and  the  term  "effective"  is  used  synony- 
mously for  low  heating  values.  The  use  of  the  term  "effective,"  how- 
ever, is  restricted  almost  entirely  to  gas-engine  practice.  Practically 
all  gas-engine  builders  state  the  thermal  efficiency  of  their  engines  in 
terms  of  effective  B.  t.  u. ;  in  other  words,  the  gas-engine  builder  does 
not  figure  on  using  the  heat  locked  up  in  the  latent  heat  of  evaporation 
of  the  water  moisture  which  is  formed  by  the  combustion  of  the  hydrogen 
in  the  gas-engine  cylinder.  From  a  thermal  point  of  view  this  is  not 


296  APPENDIX 

correct,  and  the  gas-engine  efficiency  should  always  be  expressed  in  terms 
of  the  gross  heating  value  of  the  gas  delivered  to  the  engine  cylinders. 
The  fact  that  the  engine  is  incapable  of  utilizing  all  of  the  heat  evolved 
by  the  combustion  of  the  gas  should  be  considered  as  a  defect  of  the 
gas-engine  system,  and  the  engine  should  be  charged  with  it  accordingly. 
The  question  of  high  and  low  heating  values  comes  in  not  only  in  con- 
nection with  the  combustion  of  hydrogen,  but  also  with  all  compounds 
containing  hydrogen.  The  effective  heating  value  per  cubic  foot  of 
hydrogen  is  298  B.  t.  u.;  of  Marsh  gas  is  964  B.  t.  u.;  and  of  defiant 
gas  is  1573  B.  t.  u. 

NOTE  11. 

In  certain  cases,  the  production  of  a  gas  excessively  high  in  hydrogen 
may  make  the  gas  very  undesirable  for  certain  classes  of  work;  for  in- 
stance, if  a  gas  unusually  high  in  hydrogen  is  used  in  a  gas  engine,  more 
or  less  trouble  may  be  experienced  from  back-firing  or  pre-ignition  due 
to  the  low  compression  point  of  the  hydrogen.  Further,  the  gas  engine 
not  being  able  to  utilize  the  latent  heat  of  the  condensation  of  the  water 
vapor  which  is  th3  result  of  the  combustion  of  hydrogen,  the  thermal 
efficiency  of  a  gas  engine  using  a  producer-gas  high  in  hydrogen  will  be 
lower  than  when  the  producer  gas  is  lower  in  hydrogen.  In  case  pro- 
ducer-gas is  used  for  burning  certain  classes  of  ceramic  products,  a  high 
percentage  of  hydrogen,  while  making  the  gas  process  efficient  in  keeping 
the  temperature  of  the  producer  low,  may  make  more  or  less  trouble  in 
th3  combustion  chamber  on  account  of  the  action  of  the  water  vapor 
on  the  particular  ceramic  product  under  treatment.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  preliminary  stages  of  the  burning  of  high-grade  face  brick. 

NOTE  12. 

Certain  coals  containing  iron  pyrites  will,  when  stored  in  a  damp 
condition,  have  a  tendency  to  induce  favorable  conditions  for  sponta- 
neous combustion.  For  this  reason  all  coals  of  such  a  nature  should 
either  be  stored  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  a  thorough  circulation  of 
air,  or  be  practically  dry  before  being  heaped  up  in  large  piles. 

The  percentage  of  volatile  matter  permissible  in  the  fuel  will,  of 
course,  depend  on  the  type  of  producer  used  in  gasifying  and  the  use  of 
the  resulting  gas.  If  the  gas  is  to  be  used  in  gas  engines,  a  fuel  that  is 
low  in  volatile  matter  must  be  used  or  else  the  fuel  must  be  gasified  in  a 
producer-gas  plant  that  will  secure  the  removal  of  the  tar  before  the  gas 
reaches  the  engine. 

The  fuels  that  are  ordinarily  available  at  the  present  time  for  use  in 
gas-producers  are  as  follows: 


APPENDIX  297 

1.  Anthracite  Coal.  5.  Black  Lignite. 

2.  Semi-Anthracite  Coal.  6.  Brown  Lignite. 

3.  Bituminous  Coal.  7.  Peat. 

4.  Semi-Bituminous  Coal.  8.  Wood. 

There  is  no  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  the  first  four  fuels 
given  in  this  classification,  and  it  is  sometimes  hard  to  tell  where  one 
grade  stops  and  another  begins.  The  anthracite  and  semi-anthracite 
are  used  quite  extensively  in  gas-producers  where  the  resulting  gas  is 
used  in  gas  engines.  Their  desirability  for  this  work  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  their  yield  of  tar  is  unusually  low,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  make  a  clean  gas  from  an  anthracite  coal.  The  other  fuels 
are  frequently  used  for  making  gas  for  gas  engines,  but  their  most  general 
use  is  in  making  producer-gas  for  heating  purposes. 

The  following  classification  gives  the  constituents  of  fuels  as  well  as 
their  nature  and  action: 


NAME.  NATURE.  ACTION. 

Fixed  Carbon.  Combustible.  Supports  combustion. 

Volatile  Matter.  Partly  Combustible.  May  be  made  to  support 

combustion. 

Moisture.  Impurity.  Increases  heat  losses. 
Ash. 

Red.  Impurity.  Forms  hard  clinkers. 

White.  Impurity.  Makes  fine  dust. 

Sulphur.  Impurity.  Corrosive. 

The  volatile  matter  is  that  portion  of  the  coal  which  is  given  off  in 
the  form  of  a  vapor  when  the  coal  is  heated.  The  volatile  matter  con- 
sists essentially  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The  large  amount  of  tar 
evolved  by  the  gasification  of  bituminous  coal  comes  primarily  from  the 
volatile  matter.  The  problem  of  the  removal  of  the  tar  is  of  such  vital 
importance  that  it  is  discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  23.  A  pound  of  tar 
contains  approximately  18,000  B.  t.  u.  Many  bituminous  coals,  when 
gasified  in  the  ordinary  producer  (where  no  provision  is  rrade  for  the 
destruction  of  the  tar  in  the  producer),  will  produce  as  high  as  300  or 
400  Ib.  of  tar  per  ton  of  coal  gasified.  It  is  evident  that  the  heat  loss 
in  such  a  plant  will  be  excessively  high,  and  also  that  the  producer  pro- 
ducing such  a  heat  loss  is  not  adapted  for  gasifying  fuel  of  that  nature. 

The  following  table  shows  the  principal  effects  of  tar  in  producer- 
gas  for  the  different  classes  of  work,  and  emphasizes  the  importance  of 
having  the  right  kind  of  a  producer  for  gasifying  coals  yielding  large 
amounts  of  tar : 


298  APPENDIX 

Tar -laden  producer-gas  used  in 
L  Gas  Engines,  will  cause 
(a)    Clogging  of  pipes. 
(6)    Sticking  of  valve  stems. 

(c)  Deterioration  of  valve  seat. 

(d)  Sticking  of  piston  rings. 

(e)  Leakage  past  piston  rings. 
(/)    Increased  engine  friction. 

(g)    Faulty  ignition  due  to  fouling  of  igniter  contacts. 

2.  Gas-Heating  Furnaces,  will  cause 
(a)    Clogging  of  pipes. 

(6)    Incomplete  combustion,  producing  smoke. 

3.  Ceramic  Kilns,  wrill  cause 
(a)  Stopping  up  of  ports. 

(6)    Incomplete  combustion,  producing  smoke. 

(c)  Discoloration  of  ceramic  product  in  certain  cases. 

(d)  Trouble  in  water-smoking  process. 

The  use  of  a  coal  containing  a  large  percentage  of  moisture  will  result 
in  producing  adverse  gasifying  conditions  in  the  producer.  The  amount 
of  heat  lost  in  a  gas-producer  using  a  fuel  containing  a  certain  amount  of 
moisture  may  be  calculated  by  means  of  the  formula  given  for  "N"  in 
Table  9.  If  a  fuel  containing  a  high  percentage  of  moisture  is  gasified 
in  the  ordinary  producer,  all  the  moisture  that  is  given  off  will  pass  into 
the  gas  as  water  vapor.  However,  if  such  a  fuel  is  gasified  in  a  down- 
draft  producer,  then  all  the  water  vapor  that  is  evolved  from  the  moisture 
will  pass  down  into  the  fuel  bed  and  may  be  decomposed  into  hydrogen 
and  carbon  monoxide.  In  the  latter  case,  the  heat  loss  is  not  nearly  as 
high  as  in  the  former  case,  since  the  water  vapor  passing  down  through 
the  down-draft  producer  would  replace  the  use  of  the  steam  for  keeping 
the  fuel  bed  at  the  proper  temperature.  In  other  words,  the  down- 
draft  producer  will  give  better  results  with  a  fuel  high  in  moisture  than 
the  ordinary  type  of  producer,  where  the  gas  is  given  off  at  the  top  of 
the  fuel  bed. 

While  the  presence  of  moisture  in  producer-gas  generally  has  a 
deleterious  effect  on  any  use  that  may  be  made  of  a  gas,  there  is,  however, 
one  condition  where  the  reverse  may  be  true.  Some  gas-engine  builders 
prefer  to  use  a  wet  producer-gas  in  their  gas  engines,  claiming  that  by 
so  doing  they  are  able  to  secure  better  operating  conditions  in  the 
engines.  The  use  of.  wet  producer-gas  in  a  gas  engine  will,  of  course, 
have  a  tendency  to  produce  an  action  in  the  cylinder  similar  to  that 
which  takes  place  in  a  steam  engine.  The  high  temperature  of  the  ex- 


APPENDIX  299 

ploding  gases  will  instantly  convert  the  moisture  into  steam  and  this 
will  then  expand  with  the  expanding  combustion  gases,  and  in  that  way 
it  may  increase  the  amount  of  work  done  in  the  engine  cylinder.  The 
advantages  of  a  gas  engine  using  wet  producer-gas  may  be  summarized 
as  follows: 

(a)    The  securing  of  more  expansion  from  the  working  fluid  in  the 

engine  cylinder. 
(6)    More  uniform  turning  torque  for  engine. 

(c)  Lower  temperature  of  engine  cylinder. 

(d)  Decreased  noise  from  engine  exhaust. 

(e)  Decreased  temperature  of  exhaust  gases. 

In  cases  where  a  dry  gas  is  necessary,  the  use  of  a  fuel  high  in  mois- 
ture will  always  increase  the  work  of  the  scrubbing  apparatus;  not  only 
will  more  water  be  required,  but  the  scrubbing  apparatus  must  be  larger 
in  order  to  effectively  remove  the  moisture.  If  the  coal  contains  con- 
siderable sulphur,  the  moisture  has  a  doubly  bad  effect  in  that  the 
sulphur  fumes  in  the  gas  will  be  converted  into  sulphuric  acid,  which 
will  corrode  all  wrought-iron  parts  in  the  scrubbing  apparatus.  This 
corrosive  action  may  be  so  marked  as  to  necessitate  the  use  of  cast-iron 
scrubbers  and  in  fact  cast-iron  parts  for  all  the  connections  between  the 
producer  and  the  scrubbing  apparatus. 

The  term  "ash"  is  applied  to  the  incombustible  part  of  fuel  and 
includes  all  the  mineral  matter  left  on  the  grates  after  the  complete 
combustion  of  fuel.  The  chemical  combustion  of  the  ash  has  a  very 
vital  bearing  on  its  behavior  in  the  gas-producer,  and  the  effect  that  it 
may  have  on  the  satisfactory  or  unsatisfactory  operation  of  the  producer. 
Ashes  are  generally  divided  into  two  classes,  white  and  red.  The  term 
"white"  is  hardly  correct,  since  the  ash  to  which  this  term  is  usually 
applied  is  more  of  a  steel-gray  color.  White  ashes  will  give  less  trouble 
in  the  gas-producer  than  red  ashes.  In  general,  white  ashes  will  be  in 
the  form  of  soft  lumps  or  fine  powder.  Red  ash  will  always  be  in  the 
form  of  hard  lumps  or  clinkers.  This  brings  us  to  the  question  of  the 
difference  between  ashes  and  clinkers.  The  term  "clinker"  is  applied 
only  to  the  products  formed  in  the  fire  by  the  fusing  together  of  the 
different  constituents  that  go  to  make  up  the  ashes.  The  most  active 
substance  tending  to  the  formation  of  clinker  is  the  oxide  of  iron.  When 
the  oxide  of  iron  becomes  heated  it  will  frequently  combine  with  the 
silica,  lime,  and  potash  in  the  ash  and  form  a  semi-fluid  mass,  which 
readily  adheres  to  the  internal  parts  of  the  producer  and  which  on  cooling 
becomes  so  hard  as  to  make  its  removal  extremely  difficult.  As  a  con- 
clusion of  the  preceding,  the  following  general  statement  may  be  made: 
Coals  yielding  a  white  ash  will,  in  general,  not  produce  any  clinkers, 


300  APPENDIX 

while  coals  yielding  a  red  ash  will  almost  universally  produce  clinkers 
in  a  gas-producer ;  hence,  inasmuch  as  the  formation  of  clinkers  is  always 
undesirable,  the  coal  yielding  a  red  ash  will  not  be  desirable  for  gas- 
producer  purposes. 

The  following  gives  some  of  the  common  constituents  of  ash  with 
their  specific  properties.  This  list  is  not  complete,  but  comprises  all 
those  that  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  behavior  of  the  fuel  in  the  gas- 
producer. 

NAME.  PROPERTY. 

Silica.  Produces  fine  sand  residue. 

Alumina.  Produces  fine  dust  residue. 

Oxide  of  Iron.  Produces  clinkers. 

Lime.  Flux  for  other  impurities. 

Potash.  Flux  for  other  impurities. 

The  silica  and  alumina  are  the  two  principal  constituents  as  far  as 
quantity  is  concerned.  The  quantity  of  silica  will,  in  general,  be  in  the 
neighborhood  of  54  per  cent,  and  the  quantity  of  alumina  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  36  per  cent.  However,  the  oxide  of  iron,  although  usually 
present  in  small  quantities,  is  the  most  troublesome  constituent  of  all. 
The  lime  and  potash  are  in  themselves  not  injurious,  but  by  fluxing  with 
the  other  impurities  they  frequently  produce  very  favorable  conditions 
for  the  formation  of  clinkers.  This  is  especially  true  where  the  fuel  is 
gasified  in  a  producer  having  a  grate.  For  fuels  containing  an  ash  high 
in  oxide  of  iron,  in  addition  to  lime  and  potash,  the  producer  so  designed 
as  to  have  the  fuel  rest  on  its  bottom,  and  protected  from  the  external 
air  by  means  of  a  water  seal,  will  give  the  best  results. 

The  principal  effect  of  the  sulphur  in  coal  used  in  a  gas-producer  will 
be  to  produce  conditions  favorable  for  the  production  of  sulphuric  acid 
from  the  condensation  of  the  gas.  The  sulphur  will  generally  be  con- 
verted either  into  hydrogen  sulphide  for  sulphur  dioxide.  When  the 
sulphur  dioxide  comes  in  contact  with  the  water  vapor,  quite  frequently 
sulphurous  acid  is  formed.  Sometimes  the  sulphur  is  converted  into 
sulphur  trioxide  and  when  this  comes  in  contact  with  the  water,  sul- 
phuric acid  is  formed.  Both  reactions  are  very  undesirable,  since  the 
corrosive  effect  of  the  acid  on  the  scrubbing  apparatus  will  be  such  as 
to  produce  an  unusually  rapid  deterioration  of  same.  Several  gas- 
producer  plants  have  recently  been  installed  in  America  where  cast 
iron  is  used  exclusively  for  all  connections  between  the  gas-producer 
and  the  gas  engine.  The  acids  have  practically  no  corrosive  effect  on 
cast  iron,  and  for  this  reason  the  use  of  cast  iron  would  practically  elimi- 
nate the  troubles  from  the  eating  out  of  metal  parts. 


APPENDIX 


301 


NOTE  13. 

Conception  of  the  Producer-Gas  Process.  The  honor  of  the  conception 
of  the  producer-gas  process  falls  upon  Achilles  Christian  Wilhelm  Friedrich 
von  Faber  du  Faur,  Director  of  the  Wurtemberg  Governir.ent  Iron 
Works,  at  Wasseralfingen,  Germany.  On  December  3,  1832,  Mr.  Faber 
du  Faur  made  the  first  introduction  of  a  hot  blast  into  a  blast  furnace, 
and  from  this  time  he  gave  a  great  deal  of  thought  and  attention  to  the 
production  of  combustible  gases  entirely  separate  from  the  blast  furnace. 
In  1837  he  started  to  utilize  the  blast-furnace  gas  for  heating  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace.  On  account  of  sickness,  Mr.  Faber  du  Faur  was  not 
able  to  pursue  his  studies  any  farther,  but  communicated  his  ideas  to 
Abelmen  and  Bischof,  who  went  ahead  and  built  producers  in  accordance 
with  the  suggestions  made  by  Mr.  Faber  du  Faur.  He  was  not  able  to 
build  his  own  producer  until  1843,  when  a  small  producer  was  placed 
beside  the  blast  furnace,  and  the  resulting  gases  were  used  for  heating 
furnaces  in  connection  with  the  manufacture  of  iron. 


TABLE   23 
MEAN  SPECIFIC  HEATS  UP  TO  2000°  C. 


CENTIGRADE  UNIT  C.  U.* 

1  cu.  ft.  H  .0189  +  0000017* 

1  cu.  ft.  N  .0189  +  0000017* 

1  cu.  ft.  CO  .0189  +  0000017* 

1  cu.  ft.  O  .0189  +  0000017* 

1  cu.  ft.  CO,  .023  ;  000014* 


B.  T.  U. 

.0341  +  0000017* 
.0341  +  0000017* 
+  0000017* 
+  0000017* 
+  000014* 


.0341 
.0341 
.(Ml 


1  Ib.  H  3.7    +  .0003* 

1  Ib.  N  .2405  +  .0000214* 

1  Ib.  CO  .2405  +  .0000214* 

1  Ib.  0  .2104  +  .0000187* 

1  Ib.  CO2  .19   +  .00011* 


6.66   +  .0003* 

.4329  +  .0000214* 

.4329  +  .0000214* 

.3837  +  .0000187* 

.34   +  .00011* 


*  See  §21,  p.  25. 


302  APPENDIX 

TABLE   24 
COMPARISON  OF  PRESSURES 

1  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  =        2.3  ft.  water. 

=      27.71  in.  water. 

=      51.71  mm.  of  mercury. 

2.035  in.  of  mercury  @  32°  F. 

=  144  Ib.  per  sq.  ft. 

1  in.  of  water      =        5.2  Ib.  per  sq.  ft. 

.0361  Ib.  per  sq.  in. 

1  atmosphere      =      14.6969  Ib.  per  sq.  in. 
=      33.9        ft.  of  water. 
=  2116.35      Ib.  per  sq.ft. 


INDEX. 


Absolute  humidity,  23 

Absorbers,  172. 

Action  in  producer,  58. 

Action  of  steam,  67. 

Advantages  of  gas-firing,  63. 

Affinity,  chemical,  30. 

Agitation  of  fuel  bed,  98. 

Air,  48. 

Air,  Pre-heating,  62. 

Air,  Proportion  of  steam  and,  69. 

Air  required  for  combustion,  40. 

American  Crossley  suction  producer, 

152. 
American  Furnace  and  Machine  Co. 

producer,  118. 

Ammonia,  Recovery  of,  195. 
Ammonia  scrubbers,  195. 
Ammonia  sulphate,  179. 
Amsler  producer,  118. 
Analysis,  coal  and  ash,  84. 
Apparatus,  Calibration  of,  245. 
Argand  steam  blower,  75,. 
Arrangement  of  heat  balance,  90. 
Artificial  respiration,  265. 
Ashes,  Removal  of,  98. 
Ash  zone,  58. 

Automatic  feed,  Bildt,  137. 
Automatic  feed,  George,  139. 
Atomic  weights,  32. 
Atoms,  30. 

Backus  suction  producer,  151. 

Baltimore  suction  producer,  164. 

Beaufume  producer,  111. 

Bench  gas,  49. 

Benzol  recovery,  195. 

Bibliography,  277. 

Bildt  automatic  feed,  137. 

Bischof  producer,  103. 

Blast,  Direction  of,  56. 

Blast,  Introduction  of,  98. 

Blowers,  Steam,  72. 

Boyle's  law,  23. 

British  thermal  heat  unit,  25. 

Brown  coal,  96. 

By-product      coke-oven     producers," 

185. 
By-product     coke-oven     producers, 

Status  and  future,  185. 


By-product,  Definition  of,  177. 
By-product  producers,  177. 
By-products,  Method  t>f  recovering, 

180. 
By-products,  Number  and  value  of, 

177. 

Calculation  of  heat  balance,  91. 

Calculation  of  moisture  in  air,  44. 

Calibration  of  apparatus,  245. 

Calorific  power  of  a  mixed  gas,  34. 

Calorific  power,  Relation  to  effi- 
ciency, 83. 

Calory,  25. 

Capacity,  Thermal,  24. 

Capitaine  producer,  227. 

Carbon  dioxide,  46. 

Carbon  dioxide,  Deleterious  effect  of, 
79. 

Carbon  dioxide,  Effect  of  feeding  on, 
80. 

Carbon  dioxide,  Effect  of  leakage  on, 
81. 

Carbon  dioxide,  Effect  of  tempera- 
ture and  fuel  bed,  80. 

Carbon  dioxide  in  producer-gas,  79. 

Carbonic  anhydride,  46. 

Carbonic  acid,  46. 

Carbonic  oxide,  46. 

Carbon  monoxide,  46. 

Carbon  monoxide  poisoning,  Symp- 
toms of,  264. 

Carbon  monoxide,  Poisonous  action 
of,  263. 

Carbon-ratio,  35. 

Carbureted  water  gas,  49. 

Centigrade  unit,  25. 

Centrifugal  scrubber,  175. 

Ceramic  kilns,  Producer-gas  for  fir- 
ing, 197. 

Charles'  law,  23. 

Chemical  affinity,  30. 

Chronological  record,  100. 

Classification  of  gas-producers,  55. 

Cleaning  gas,  Classification  of  meth- 
ods of,  169. 

Cleaning  gas,  Object  of,  169. 

Cleanliness,  98. 

Cleaning  plant,  240. 


303 


304 


INDEX. 


Coal,  95. 

Coal  and  ash  analysis,  84. 

Coal  gas,  49. 

Coke  quencher,  191. 

Cold  gas  efficiency,  87. 

Combination  of  laws  of  Boyle  and 
Charles,  23. 

Combustion,  31. 

Combustion,  Air  required  for,  40. 

Combustion,  Heat  carried  away  by 
products  of,  42. 

Combustion,  Temperature  of,  31. 

Combustion,  Theoretical,  36. 

Combustion,  Weight  and  volume  of 
products  of,  41. 

Combustion  zone,  60. 

Commercial  gas,  45. 

Commercial  gas  constituents,  Tabu- 
lated data  of,  50. 

Commercial  gases,  Comparison  of,  49. 

Comparison  of  commercial  gases,  49. 

Composition  of  gas,  Effect  of  different 
amounts  of  steam  on,  70. 

Composition  of  gas,  Effect  of  steam 
on,  69. 

Composition  of  gases  by  weight,  39. 

Compounds,  30. 

Condition  of  fire,  61. 

Condition,  Standard,  25. 

Continuity  of  operation,  56. 

Conservatism  in  improvement,  103. 

Coolers,  172. 

Cost  of  installation,  231. 

Critical  point,  21. 

Critical  temperature,  21- 

Critical  pressure,  21. 

Currents,  Opposite,  26. 

Currents,  Parallel,  26. 

Dalton's  law,  24. 

Decomposition,  Heat  of,  32. 

Decomposition  zone,  60. 

Definite  proportion,  Law  of,  31. 

Deflectors,  170. 

Density  of  gas,  25. 

Destructive  distillation,  33. 

Direct-firing,  33. 

Direction  of  blast,  56. 

Dissociation,  31. 

Dissociation  temperature,  31. 

Distillation,  Destructive,  33. 

Distillation,  Fractional,  33. 

Distillation  zone,  60. 

Division  of  matter,  30. 

Dowson   producer,   Introduction   of, 

102. 

Draft,  Nature  of,  56. 
Duff  producer,  125. 
Duff-Whitfield  producer,  224. 


Early  use  of  gas-producers,  102. 
Ebelmen's  producers,  105. 
Economy  of  water,  236. 
Efficiency,  Cold-gas,  87. 
Efficiency,  Conditions  governing,  84. 
Efficiency,  Definition  of,  82. 
Efficiency,  Effect  of  steam  on,  88. 
Efficiency,  Grate,  85. 
Efficiency,  Hot-gas,  87. 
Efficiency,  Method  of  finding,  83. 
Efficiency  of  gas-producers,  82. 
Efficiency  of  steam  blowers,  77. 
Efficiency,  Relation  to  utility,  83. 
Efficiency,     Relation      to     calorific 

power,  83. 

Efficiency,  Thermal,  233. 
Efficiency,  Two  kinds,  82. 
Ekman  producer,  110. 
Elements,  30. 
Equation  of  pipes,  28. 
Endothermic  reaction,  30. 
Erecting  producers,  238. 
Ethene,  46. 
Ethylene,  46. 
Exothermic  reaction,  31. 
Explosion,  Danger  of,  237. 
Explosive  mixtures,  43. 
Eynon-Evans  steam  blower,  76. 

Fairbanks-Morse    suction    producer, 

159. 
Feeding,  Effect  of  on  carbon  dioxide, 

80. 

Figure  of  merit,  85. 
Figure  of  merit,  Limited  use  of,  86. 
Filters,  172. 
Fire,  Condition  of,  61. 
Fire  damp,  46. 
Firing,  Direct,  33. 
Firing,  Gas,  33. 
First  aid  to  sufferer,  265. 
Flame,  32. 

Flame,  Temperature  of,  42. 
Flow  of  gases,  28. 
Forms  of  matter,  21. 
Forter  producer,  121. 
Fractional  distillation,  33. 
Fraser-Talbot  producer,  132. 
Fuel  bed,  Agitation  of,  98. 
Fuel  bed,  Depth  of,  98. 
Fuel  bed,  Effect  of  on  carbon  dioxide, 

80. 

Fuel,  Character  of,  94. 
Fuel,  Condition  of,  94. 
Fuel  constituents,  Effect  of  solid, 

200. 

Fuel  Gas  Co.  producer,  116. 
Fuel,  General  data  on,  276. 
Fuel,  Heat  of  combustion,  85. 


INDEX. 


305 


Fuel,  Means  of  agitating,  56. 

Fuel,  Size  of,  95. 

Fuel  supply,  53. 

Fuels,  Early,  94. 

Fuel,  Use  of  cheap,  232. 

Function  of  steam,  68. 

Gas,  Bench,  49. 

Gas,  Calculation  of  volume,  36. 

Gas  cleaning,  169. 

Gas,  Coal,  49. 

Gas,  Commercial,  45. 

Gas,  Composition  of  by  weight,  39. 

Gas,  Density  of,  25. 

Gas  discharges,  Table  of,  270. 

Gas,  Distinction  between  vapor  and, 

21. 

Gases,  Flow  of,  28. 
Gases,  Joule's  law  of,  24. 
Gases,  Specific  heat  of,  24. 
Gases,  Table  of  solubility  of,  275. 
Gas-firing,  33. 

Gas-firing,  Advantages  of,  63. 
Gasification,  Rate  of,  233. 
Gas,  Illuminating,  49. 
Gas,  Natural,  48. 
Gas,  Oil,  48. 
Gas,  Perfect,  21. 
Gas,  Place  of  removing,  56. 
Gas  poisoning,  Danger  of,  263. 
Gas  poisoning,  Post-mortem  effects, 

266. 

Gas-producer,  Adaptability  of,  97. 
Gas-producer,  Automatic  feeding  for, 

97. 
Gas-producer,    Composition    of    gas 

from,  97. 

Gas-producer,  Construction  of,  97. 
Gas-producer,   Continuity  of  opera- 
tion of,  97. 

Gas-producer,  Future  of,  255. 
Gas-producer,  Heat  balance  of,  89. 
Gas-producer,  Heat  losses  of,  89. 
Gas-producer  power  plants,  228. 
Gas-producer    power  plants,  Status 

of,  228. 

Gas-producer  requirements,  97. 
Gas-producers,  Early  use  of,  102. 
Gas-producers,  Efficiency  of,  82. 
Gas-producers     for     ceramic     work, 

Types  of,  203. 
Gas-producers    for    gasifying    wood, 

214. 

Gas-producers,  History  of,  100. 
Gas-producers,  Operation  of,  238. 
Gas,  Scrubbing  of,  232. 
Gas,  Specific  gravity  of  a  mixed,  39. 
Gas,  Steam-enriched,  58. 
Gas,  Temperature  of,  61. 


Gas,  Water,  49. 
Gas,  Weight  of  a  mixed,  38. 
Gay-Lussac,  Law  of,  24. 
George  automatic  feed,  139. 
Gram-Calory,  25. 
Grate  efficiency,  85. 
Grate  efficiency,  99. 
Gravity,  Specific,  of  gas,  25. 

Heat  balance,  Arrangement  of,  90. 
Heat  balance,  Calculation  of,  91. 
Heat   carried  away  by  products  of 

combustion ,'  42 . 

Heat  energy,  Conservation  of,  99. 
Heat  energy,  Storage  of,  236. 
Heat  of  decomposition,  32. 
Heat  insulation,  99. 
Heat  loss,  82. 
Heat  losses,  89. 
Heat  losses,  199. 
Heat,  Sensible  heat  loss  of,  42. 
Heat,  Specific,  24. 
Heat  unit,  25. 

History  of  gas-producers,  100. 
Hot  gas  efficiency,  87. 
Humidity,  23. 
Humidity,  Absolute,  23. 
Humidity,  Relative,  23. 
Humidity  table,  268. 
Hydrocarbons,  47. 
Hydrocarbons,  Value  of,  60. 
Hydrogen,  45. 

Illuminants,  48. 
Illuminating  gas,  49. 
Inadaptability  of  gas  engines,  229. 
Inadaptability  of  producers,  54. 

Joule's  law  of  gases,  24. 
Kitson  producer,  116. 

Labor  required,  230. 

Langdon  producer,  113. 

Law,  Dalton's,  24. 

Law,  Joule's,  of  gases,  24. 

Law  of  Boyle,  23. 

Law  of  Boyle  and  Charles  combined, 

23. 

Law  of  Charles,  23. 
Law  of  definite  proportion,  31. 
Law  of  Gay-Lussac,  24. 
Law  of  Mariotte,  23. 
Law  of  multiple  proportion,  31. 
Laws,  Importance  of,  21. 
Laws  of  thermal  chemistry,  30. 
Leakage,  Effect  of  on  carbon  dioxide, 

81. 
Lignite,  95. 


306 


INDEX. 


Liquid  scrubbers,  172. 

Loomis  producer,  139. 

Lundin  flat-grate  producer,  214. 

Lundin  stepped-grate  producer,  215. 

Manufacture  of  producer-gas,  57. 

Mariotte's  law,  23. 

Marsh  gas,  46. 

Matter,  Division  of,  30. 

Matter,  Forms  of,  21. 

Means  of  agitating  fuel,  56. 

Mechanical  effect  of  steam,  71. 

Mechanical  mixtures,  30. 

Melting  points,  Table  of,  275. 

Merit,  Figure  of,  85. 

Methane,  46. 

Method  of  finding  efficiency,  83. 

Method  of  supporting  fuel,  55. 

Mixtures,  Explosive,  43. 

Moisture  in  air,  44. 

Molecular  weights,  32. 

Molecules,  30. 

Mond  by-product  producer,  180. 

Mond  by-product  producer,  Intro- 
duction of,  102. 

Mond  process,  Distinctive  features 
of,  183. 

Morgan  producer,  137. 

Multiple  proportion,  Law  of,  31. 

Nagel  suction  producer,  148. 
Nascent  state,  31. 
Nature  of  draft,  56. 
Nature  of  producer-gas,  57. 
Natural  gas,  48. 
Nitrogen,  47. 

Object  of  use  of  steam,  67. 
Oil  gas,  48. 
Olefiant  gas,  46. 
Operation,  Continuity  of,  56. 
Operation  of  producers,  238. 
Opposite  currents,  21. 
Otto-Hoffman  oven,  185. 
Otto  suction  producer,  149. 
Oxidation,  31. 
Oxygen,  47. 

Parallel  currents,  26. 

Peat,  95. 

Perfect  gas,  21. 

Pintsch  suction  producer,  150. 

Pipe  coverings,  Table  of  efficiencies, 

270. 

Pipes,  Equation  of,  28. 
Place  of  removing  gas,  56. 
Poetter  producer,  225. 
Poking,  235. 
Point,  Critical,  21. 


Poisoning,  Gas,  263. 

Pre-heating  air,  62. 

Pressure,  Critical,  21. 

Pressure,  Vapor,  22. 

Producer,  Action  in,  58. 

Producer,  Examination  of  for  test 

245. 

Producer-gas,  Carbon  dioxide  in,  79. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  ceramic  kilns, 

Advantages  of,  201. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  ceramic  kilns, 

Difficulties  in  using,  198. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  ceramic  kilns, 

Objections  to,  198. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  ceramic  kilns. 

Status  of,  197. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  ceramic  kilns, 

Value  of,  198. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  steam  boilers, 

210. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  steam  boilers, 

Advantages  of,  211. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  steam  boilers, 

Fiel'd  for  use  of,  210. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  steam  boilers, 

Principle  of  use  of,  210. 
Producer-gas  for  firing  steam  boilers, 

Requirements  of,  211. 
Producer-gas,  Ignorance  of,  52. 
Producer-gas  locomotives,  255. 
Producer-gas,  Manufacture  of,  57. 
Producer-gas  marine  plants,  257. 
Producer-gas,  Nature  of,  57. 
Producer-gas  portable  engines,  259. 
Producer-gas,  Progress  made  in,  52. 
Producer-gas,  Simple,  57. 
Producer-gas,  Status  of,  52. 
Producer-gas,  Uses  of,  63. 
Producer  plant,  Location  of,  237. 
Producers,  Classification  of,  55. 
Producers,  Inadaptability  of,  54. 
Producers,  Method  of  operation,  55. 
Producer  troubles,  241. 
Progress  made  in  producer-gas,  52. 

Quantity  of  steam,  70. 

Radiation,  27. 

Radiation  coefficients,  27. 

Radiation  coefficients,  Table  of,  268. 

Radiation  loss  in  pipes,  Table  of,  269. 

Radiation  loss  through  walls,  Table 
of,  269. 

Radiation  ratio,  Table  of,  268. 

Recuperation,  65. 

Recuperation,  Comparison  with  re- 
generation, 66. 

Recuperation,  Value  of,  66. 

Reduction,  31. 


INDEX. 


307 


Refuse,  96. 

Regeneration,  Comparison  with  re- 
cuperation, 66. 

Regeneration,  Value  of,  66. 

Regenerators,  64. 

Relative  humidity,  23. 

Removal  of  ashes,  98. 

Repair,  Cost  of,  231. 

Requirements  of  gas-producers,  97. 

Respiration,  Artificial,  265. 

Riche  distillation  producer,  215. 

Riche  double-combustion  producer, 
220. 

Rotating  scrubbers,  174. 

Running  producer,  240. 

Saturation,  22. 

Saturation  table,  267. 

Sensible  heat  loss,  42. 

Siemens  producer,  111. 

Siemens  steam  blower,  74. 

Simple  producer-gas,  57. 

Smith  suction  producer,  161. 

Smoke  nuisance,  230. 

Smythe  producer,  125. 

Solid  jet  steam  blower,  76. 

Specific  gravity  of  a  mixed  gas,  39. 

Specific  gravity  of  gas,  25. 

Specific  heat,  24. 

Specific  heat  of  a  mixed  gas,  34. 

Specific  heat  of  gases,  24. 

Specific  heat,  Variation  of,  275. 

Specific  volume  of  gas,  25. 

Standard  condition,  25. 

Starting,  Ease  in,  99. 

Starting  Engine,  239. 

Starting  producers,  238. 

Steam,  Action  of,  67. 

Steam  and  air  regulation,  99. 

Steam  blower,  Argand,  75. 

Steam  blower,  Eynon-Evans,  76. 

Steam  blower,  Siemens,  74. 

Steam  blower,  Solid  jet,  76. 

Steam  blower,  Thwaite,  75. 

Steam  blowers,  Efficiency  of,  77. 

Steam  blowers,  72. 

Steam  blowers,  Types  of,  74. 

Steam  boilers,  Method  of  firing  with 

producer-gas,  212. 
Steam  boilers,   Results   obtained   by 

firing  with  producer-gas,  211. 
Steam,  Effect  of  on  composition  of 

gas,  69. 

Steam,  Effect  of  on  efficiency   88. 
Steam,    Effect    of    temperature    on 

action,  68. 

Steam-enriched  gas,  58. 
Steam,  Function  of,  68. 
Steam,  Mechanical  effect,  71. 


Steam,  Object  of  use,  67. 

Steam,  Quantity  of,  70. 

Steam,  Proportion  of  air  and,  69. 

Steam  regulation  for  suction  pro- 
ducers, 147. 

Steam,  Summary  of  principles  in- 
volved in  use,  71. 

Steam,  Use  of  in  gas-producers,  67. 

Suction  producers,  Introduction  of, 
102. 

Suction  producers,  American,  146. 

Suction  producers,  American  types, 
147. 

Suction  producers,  Classification  of, 
146. 

Suction  producers,  Definition  of,  146. 

Suction  producers,  History  of,  146. 

Suction  producers,  Operation  of,  147. 

Suction  producers,  Steam  regulation 
for,  147. 

Sufferer,  First  aid  to,  265. 

Supporting  fuel,  Method  of,  55, 

Summary  of  principles  involved  in 
use  of  steam,  71. 

Swindell  producer,  119. 

Tabulated  data  of  commercial  gas 

constituents,  50. 
Tar  collector,  171. 
Tar,  Determination  of,  249. 
Tar,  Methods  of  elimination,  223. 
Tar,    Influence    of   temperature    on, 

223. 

Tar,  Nature  of,  222. 
Tar,  Object  of  removal  of,  222. 
Tar,  Removal  of  from  gas,  222. 
Tar  scrubbers,  193. 
Taylor  fluxing  producer,  113. 
Taylor  producer,  126. 
Temperature,  24. 
Temperature,  critical,  21. 
Temperature,    Effect    of   on   carbon 

dioxide,  80. 
Temperature,  Effect  of  on  operation 

of  producer,  85. 

Temperature  of  combustion,  31. 
Temperature  of  dissociation,  31. 
Temperature  of  flame,  42. 
Temperature  of  gas,  61. 
Tension,  Vapor,  22. 
Test,  Duration  of,  246. 
Testing  producer,  243. 
Test,  Object  of,  243. 
Test,  Report  of,  251. 
Test,  Value  of,  243. 
Theoretical  combustion,  36. 
Thermal  capacity,  24. 
Thermal  chemistry,  Laws  of,  30. 
Thwaite  steam  blower,  75. 


308 


INDEX. 


Tower  scrubbers,  proportions  of,  176. 
Troubles,  Producer,  241. 
Types  of  steam  blowers,  74. 

Unit,  British  thermal  heat,  25. 

Unit,  Centigrade,  25. 

United-Otto  oven,  188. 

Unit,  Heat,  25. 

Use  of  steam  in  gas-producers,  67. 

Uses  of  producer-gas,  63. 

Utility,  Relation  of,  to  efficiency,  83. 

Vapor,  Distinction  between  gas  and, 

21. 

Vapor  pressure,  22. 
Vapor  tension,  22. 
Vapor,  Water,  47. 
Vapor,  Water,  71. 
Value  of  recuperation,  66. 
Value  of  regeneration,  66. 
Volume  of  gas,  Calculation  of,  36. 
Volume,  Specific,  of  gas,  25. 

Want  of  appreciation,  103. 
Water  gas,  49. 
Water  gas,  Carbureted,  49. 
Water  vapor,  47. 


Water  vapor,  71. 

Water  vapor,  Determination  of,  249, 

Weber  suction  producer,  150. 

Wedding  producer,  111. 

Weight  and  volume  of  products  of 
combustion,  41. 

Weight  of  a  mixed  gas,  38. 

Weights,  Atomic,  32. 

Weights,  Molecular,  32. 

Wellman  producer,  132. 

Wile  automatic  producer,  143. 

Wile  suction  producer,  152. 

Wile  water-seal  producer,  145. 

Wilson  producer,  226. 

Windhausen  scrubber,  174. 

Wood  double-bosh  producer,  130. 

Wood  flat-grate  producer,  132. 

Wood  single-bosh  water-seal  pro- 
ducer, 132. 

Wood  suction  producer,  148. 

Wood  water-seal  producer,  131. 

Wyer  suction  producer,  165. 

Zone,  Ash,  58. 
Zone,  Combustion,  60. 
Zone,  Decomposition,  60. 
Zone,  Distillation,  60. 


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